Overview of resistance to systemic therapy in patients with breast cancer

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 608, Issue , 2007, Pages 1-22

  Gonzalez Angulo, Ana Maria ^a   Morales Vasquez, Flavia ^a   Hortobagyi, Gabriel N ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AROMATASE INHIBITOR; GESTAGEN; SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATOR;

BIOASSAY; BREAST TUMOR; DRUG RESISTANCE; FEMALE; HUMAN; REVIEW;

AROMATASE INHIBITORS; BIOLOGICAL ASSAY; BREAST NEOPLASMS; DRUG RESISTANCE, NEOPLASM; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATORS; FEMALE; HUMANS; PROGESTINS;

EID: 38449115081     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-74039-3_1     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Anonymous. Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide, Version 1.0. GLOBOCAN: IARC Press, 2002, (http//:www-dep. iarc.fr/daba/infodata.htm).
2. Jemal A, Murray T, Samuels A et al. Cancer statistics, 2003. CA Cancer J Clin 2003;53:5-26.
3. Pisani P, Bray F, Parkim DN. Estimates of the worldwide prevalence of cancer for 25 sites in the adult population. Int J Cancer 2002;97:72-81.
4. Collyar DE. Breast cancer; a global prespective. J Clin Oncol 2002;19(18 Suppl): 101S-105S.
5. McGuire WL. Breast cancer prognostic factors: Evaluation guidelines. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83:154-155.
6. Winer EP, Morrow M, Osborne CK et al. Malignat tumors of the breast. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg S, eds. Cancer Principles and Practices of Oncology, chap 37.2. Philadephia, PA: 2001:1651-1717.
7. Singletary SE, Allred C, Ashley P et al. Revision of the American Joint Committee on Cancer staging system for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:3628-3636.
8. Slamon DJ, Clark GM, Wong SG et al. Human breast cancer: Correlation of relapse and survival with amplification of the HER-2/neu oncogene. Science 1987;235:177-182.
9. Tommasi S, Paradiso A, Mangia A et al. Biological correlation between HER-2/neu and proliferative activity in human breast cancer. Anticancer Res 1991;11:1395-1400.
10. Fox SB, Leek RD, Smith K et al. Tumor angiogenesis in node-negative breast carcinomas - Relationship with epidermal growth factor receptor, estrogen receptor, and survival. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1994;29:109-116.
11. Gasparini G, Boracchi P, Bevilacqua P et al. A multiparametric study on the prognostic value of epidermal growth factor receptor in operable breast carcinoma. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1994;29:59-71.
12. Hedley DW, Clark GM, Cornelisse CJ et al. Consensus review of the clinical utility of DNA cytometry in carcinoma of the breast. Report of the DNA Cytometry Consensus Conference. Cytometry 1993;14:482-485.
13. Makris A, Powles TJ, Dowsett M et al. p53 protein overexpression and chemosensitivity in breast cancer. The Lancet 1995;345:1181-1182.
14. Keyomarsi K, Tucker SL, Buchholz TA et al. Cyclin E and survival in patients with breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine Online 2002;347:1566-1575.
15. Alkarain A, Slingerland J. Deregulation of p27 by oncogenic signaling and its prognostic significance in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 2004;6:13-21. (Pubitemid 38195556)
16. Cristofanilli M, Budd GT, Ellis MJ et al. Circulating tumor cells, disease progression, and survival in metastatic breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2004;351:781-791.
17. Funke IM, Zia A, Wild C et al. Phenotype of disseminated tumor cells in bone marrow of breast cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2001;7:3670S.
18. Gasparini G, Weidner N, Bevilacqua P et al. Tumor microvessel density, p53 expression, tumor size, and peritumoral lymphatic vessel invasion are relevant prognostic markers in node-negative breast carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 1994;12:454-466.
19. Anonymous. The national institutes of health consensus development conference: Adjuvant therapy for breast cancer. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. November 1-3, 2000. Proceedings. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 2001;1-152.
20. Henderson IC, Berry DA, Demetri GD et al. Improved outcomes from adding sequential Paclitaxel but not from escalating Doxorubicin dose in an adjuvant chemotherapy regimen for patients with node-positive primary breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:976-983.
21. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for early breast cancer: An overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 1998;351:1451-1467.
22. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for early breast cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;1: CD000486.
23. Buzdar AU. Data from the Arimidex, tamoxifen, alone or in combination (ATAC) trial: Implications for use of aromatase inhibitors in 2003. Clin Cancer Res 2004;10:355S-361S.
24. Haq R, Zanke B. Inhibition of apoptotic signaling pathways in cancer cells as a mechanism of chemotherapy resistance. Cancer Metastasis Rev 1998;17:233-239.
25. DeVita Jr VT. The James Ewing lecture. The relationship between tumor mass and resistance to chemotherapy. Implications for surgical adjuvant treatment of cancer. Cancer 1983;51:1209-1220.
26. Green M, Hortobagyi GN. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for operable breast cancer. Oncology (Huntingt) 2002;16:871-84, (889).
27. Fisher B, Bryant J, Wolmark N et al. Effect of preoperative chemotherapy on the outcome of women with operable breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1998;16:2672-2685.
28. Kuerer HM, Newman LA, Buzdar AU et al. Pathologic tumor response in the breast following neoadjuvant chemotherapy predicts axillary lymph node status. Cancer Journal From Scientific American 1998;4:230-236.
29. Fisher B, Bryant J, Wolmark N et al. Effect of preoperative chemotherapy on the outcome of women with operable breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1998;16:2672-2685.
30. Fisher B, Bryant J, Wolmark N et al. Effect of preoperative chemotherapy on the outcome of women with operable breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1998;16:2672-2685.
31. Bear HD, Anderson S, Brown A et al. The effect on tumor response of adding sequential preoperative docetaxel to preoperative doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide: Preliminary results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol B-27. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:4165-4174.
32. Bear HD, Anderson S, Brown A et al. The effect on tumor response of adding sequential preoperative docetaxel to preoperative doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide: Preliminary results from National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol B-27. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:4165-4174.
33. Heys SD, Hutcheon AW, Sarkar TK et al. Neoadjuvant docetaxel in breast cancer: 3-year survival results from the Aberdeen trial. Clin Breast Cancer 2002;3(Suppl 2): S69-S74.
34. Buzdar AU, Hunt KK, Smith T et al. Significantly higher pathological complete remission (PCR) rate following neoadjuvant therapy with trastuzumab (H), paclitaxel (P), and anthracycline-containing chemotherapy (CT): Initial results of a randomized trial in operable breast cancer (BC) with HER/2 positive disease. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2004;22(14 S).
35. Ellis MJ, Rosen E, Dressman H et al. Neoadjuvant comparisons of aromatase inhibitors and tamoxifen: Pretreatment determinants of response and on-treatment effect. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003;86:301-307.
36. Huober J, Krainick-Strobel U, Kurek R et al. Neoadjuvant endocrine therapy in primary breast cancer. Clin Breast Cancer 2004;5:341-347.
37. Muggia FM. Primary chemotherapy: Concepts and issues. Prog Clin Biol Res 1985;201:377-383.
38. Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J et al. Estimating the world cancer burden. Globocan 2000. Int J Cancer 2001;94:153-156.
39. Cardoso F, Di Leo A, Lohrisch C et al. Second and subsequent lines of chemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer: What did we learn in the last two decades? Annals Oncol 2002;3:197-207.
40. Thomas E, Holmes FA, Smith TL et al. The use of alternate, noncross-resistant adjuvant chemotherapy on the basis of pathologic response to a neoadjuvant doxorubicin-based regimen in women with operable breast cancer: Long-term results from a prospective randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:2294-2302.
41. Strumberg D, Nitiss JL, Rose A et al. Mutation of a conserved serine residue in a quinolone-resistant type II topoisomerase alters the enzyme-DNA and drug interactions. J Biol Chem 1999;274:7292-7301.
42. Biedler JL, Riehm H. Cellular resistance to actinomycin D in Chinese hamster cells in vitro: Cross-resistance, radioautographic, and cytogenetic studies. Cancer Res 1970;30:1174-1184.
43. Riordan JR, Ling V. Genetic and biochemical characterization of multidrug resistance. Pharmacol Ther 1985;28:51-75.
44. Biedler JL, Riehm H. Cellular resistance to actinomycin D in Chinese hamster cells in vitro: Cross-resistance, radioautographic, and cytogenetic studies. Cancer Res 1970;30:1174-1184.
45. Gros P, Croop J, Housman D. Mammalian multidrug resistance gene: Complete cDNA sequence indicates strong homology to bacterial transport proteins. Cell 1986;47:371-380.
46. Volk EL, Rohde K, Rhee M et al. Methotrexate cross-resistance in a mitoxantrone-selected multidrug-resistant MCF7 breast cancer cell line is attributable to enhanced energy-dependent drug efflux. Cancer Res 2000;60:3514-3521.
47. Izquierdo MA, Scheffer GL, Flens MJ et al. Relationship of LRP-human major vault protein to in vitro and clinical resistance to anticancer drugs. Cytotechnology 1996;19:191-197.
48. Vassetzky YS, Alghisi GC, Gasser SM. DNA topoisomerase II mutations and resistance to anti-tumor drugs. Bioessays 1995;17:767-774.
49. Fernandes DJ, Qiu J, Catapano CV. DNA topoisomerase II isozymes involved in anticancer drug action and resistance. Adv Enzyme Regul 1995;35:265-281.
50. Chen YN, Mickley LA, Schwartz AM et al. Characterization of adriamycin-resistant human breast cancer cells which display overexpression of a novel resistance-related membrane protein. J Biol Chem 1990;265:10073-10080.
51. Safa AR, Glover CJ, Meyers MB et al. Vinblastine photoaffinity labeling of a high molecular weight surface membrane glycoprotein specific for multidrug-resistant cells. J Biol Chem 1986;261:6137-6140.
52. Choi KH, Chen CJ, Kriegler M et al. An altered pattern of cross-resistance in multidrug-resistant human cells results from spontaneous mutations in the mdr1 (P-glycoprotein) gene. Cell 1988;53:519-529.
53. Lee K, Belinsky MG, Bell DW et al. Isolation of MOAT-B, a widely expressed multidrug resistance-associated protein/canalicular multispecific organic anion transporter-related transporter. Cancer Res 1998;58:2741-2747.
54. Zhan Z, Sandor VA, Gamelin E et al. Expression of the multidrug resistance-associated protein gene in refractory lymphoma: Quantitation by a validated polymerase chain reaction assay. Blood 1997;89:3795-3800.
55. Zhang H, D'Arpa P, Liu LF. A model for tumor cell killing by topoisomerase poisons. Cancer Cell 1990;2:23-27.
56. Hochhauser D, Harris AL. The role of topoisomerase II alpha and beta in drug resistance. Cancer Treat Rev 1993;19:181-194.
57. Drake FH, Hofmann GA, Bartus HF et al. Biochemical and pharmacological properties of p170 and p180 forms of topoisomerase II. Biochemistry 1989;28:8154-8160.
58. Larsen AK, Skladanowski A. Cellular resistance to topoisomerase-targeted drugs: From drug uptake to cell death. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1400:257-274.
59. Larsen AK, Skladanowski A. Cellular resistance to topoisomerase-targeted drugs: From drug uptake to cell death. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1400:257-274.
60. Matsumoto Y, Takano H, Fojo T. Cellular adaptation to drug exposure: Evolution of the drug-resistant phenotype. Cancer Res 1997;57:5086-5092.
61. Liu LF. DNA topoisomerase poisons as antitumor drugs. Annu Rev Biochem 1989;58:351-375.
62. Giovanella BC, Stehlin JS, Wall ME et al. DNA topoisomerase I-targeted chemotherapy of human colon cancer in xenografts. Science 1989;246:1046-1048.
63. Mannervik B, Danielson UH. Glutathione transferases-structure and catalytic activity. CRC Crit Rev Biochem 1988;23:283-337.
64. Hayes JD, Pulford DJ. The glutathione S-transferase supergene family: Regulation of GST and the contribution of the isoenzymes to cancer chemoprotection and drug resistance. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 1995;30:445-600.
65. Brix LA, Nicoll R, Zhu X et al. Structural and functional characterisation of human sulfotransferases. Chem Biol Interact 1998;109:123-127.
66. Ivy SP, Tulpule A, Fairchild CR et al. Altered regulation of P-450IA1 expression in a multidrug-resistant MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line. J Biol Chem 1988;263:19119-19125.
67. Thorgeirsson SS, Huber BE, Sorrell S et al. Expression of the multidrug-resistant gene in hepatocarcinogenesis and regenerating rat liver. Science 1987;236:1120-1122.
68. Schecter RL, Alaoui-Jamali MA, Woo A et al. Expression of a rat glutathione-S-transferase complementary DNA in rat mammary carcinoma cells: Impact upon alkylator-induced toxicity. Cancer Res 1993;53:4900-4906.
69. Leyland-Jones BR, Townsend AJ, Tu CP et al. Antineoplastic drug sensitivity of human MCF-7 breast cancer cells stably transfected with a human alpha class glutathione S-transferase gene. Cancer Res 1991;51:587-594.
70. Berhane K, Hao XY, Egyhazi S et al. Contribution of glutathione transferase M3-3 to 1, 3-bis (2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea resistance in a human nonsmall cell lung cancer cell line. Cancer Res 1993;53:4257-4261.
71. Awasthi S, Singhal SS, Srivastava SK et al. Adenosine triphosphate-dependent transport of doxorubicin, daunomycin, and vinblastine in human tissues by a mechanism distinct from the P-glycoprotein. J Clin Invest 1994;93:958-965.
72. Jedlitschky G, Leier I, Buchholz U et al. ATP-dependent transport of glutathione S-conjugates by the multidrug resistance-associated protein. Cancer Res 1994;54:4833-4836.
73. Muller M, Meijer C, Zaman GJ et al. Overexpression of the gene encoding the multidrug resistance-associated protein results in increased ATP-dependent glutathione S-conjugate transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:13033-13037.
74. Sinha BK, Mimnaugh EG, Rajagopalan S et al. Adriamycin activation and oxygen free radical formation in human breast tumor cells: Protective role of glutathione peroxidase in adriamycin resistance. Cancer Res 1989;49:3844-3848.
75. Sinha BK. Free radicals in anticancer drug pharmacology. Chem Biol Interact 1989;69:293-317.
76. Hall AG. Review: The role of glutathione in the regulation of apoptosis. Eur J Clin Invest 1999;29:238-245.
77. Bellamy CO. p53 and apoptosis. Br Med Bull 1997;53:522-538.
78. Reed JC, Miyashita T, Takayama S et al. BCL-2 family proteins: Regulators of cell death involved in the pathogenesis of cancer and resistance to therapy. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 1996;60:23-32. (Pubitemid 26047917)
79. Reed JC. Bcl-2 family proteins: Regulators of apoptosis and chemoresistance in hematologic malignancies. Semin Hematol 1997;34:9-19.
80. Poplack DG, Reaman G. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am 1988;35:903-932.
81. Chen G, Jaffrezou JP, Fleming WH et al. Prevalence of multidrug resistance related to activation of the mdr1 gene in human sarcoma mutants derived by single-step doxorubicin selection. Cancer Res 1994;54:4980-4987.
82. Laredo J, Huynh A, Muller C et al. Effect of the protein kinase C inhibitor staurosporine on chemosensitivity to daunorubicin of normal and leukemic fresh myeloid cells. Blood 1994;84:229-237.
83. van der Kolk DM, de Vries EG, Koning JA et al. Activity and expression of the multidrug resistance proteins MRP1 and MRP2 in acute myeloid leukemia cells, tumor cell lines, and normal hematopoietic CD34+ peripheral blood cells. Clin Cancer Res 1998;4:1727-1736.
84. Chernov MV, Stark GR. The p53 activation and apoptosis induced by DNA damage are reversibly inhibited by salicylate. Oncogene 1997;14:2503-2510.
85. Tanizawa A, Kubota M, Takimoto T et al. Prevention of adriamycin-induced interphase death by 3-aminobenzamide and nicotinamide in a human promyelocytic leukemia cell line. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1987;144:1031-1036.
86. Larsen AK, Skladanowski A. Cellular resistance to topoisomerase-targeted drugs: From drug uptake to cell death. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998;1400:257-274.
87. Withoff S, de Jong S, de Vries EG et al. Human DNA topoisomerase II: Biochemistry and role in chemotherapy resistance (review). Anticancer Res 1996;16:1867-1880.
88. Withoff S, de Jong S, de Vries EG et al. Human DNA topoisomerase II: Biochemistry and role in chemotherapy resistance (review). Anticancer Res 1996;16:1867-1880.
89. Finlay GJ, Baguley BC, Snow K et al. Multiple patterns of resistance of human leukemia cell sublines to amsacrine analogues. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990;82:662-667.
90. Seidman AD, Reichman BS, Crown JP et al. Paclitaxel as second and subsequent therapy for metastatic breast cancer: Activity independent of prior anthracycline response. J Clin Oncol 1995;13:1152-1159.
91. Wilson WH, Berg SL, Bryant G et al. Paclitaxel in doxorubicin-refractory or mitoxantrone-refractory breast cancer: A phase I/II trial of 96-hour infusion. J Clin Oncol 1994;12:1621-1629.
92. Anderson H, Hopwood P, Prendiville J et al. A randomised study of bolus vs continuous pump infusion of ifosfamide and doxorubicin with oral etoposide for small cell lung cancer. Br J Cancer 1993;67:1385-1390.
93. Wilson L, Miller HP, Farrell KW et al. Taxol stabilization of microtubules in vitro: Dynamics of tubulin addition and loss at opposite microtubule ends. Biochemistry 1985;24:5254-5262.
94. Sparreboom A, van Tellingen O, Nooijen WJ et al. Preclinical pharmacokinetics of paclitaxel and docetaxel. Anticancer Drugs 1998;9:1-17.
95. Greenberger LM, Williams SS, Horwitz SB. Biosynthesis of heterogeneous forms of multidrug resistance-associated glycoproteins. J Biol Chem 1987;262:13685-13689.
96. Tolcher AW, Cowan KH, Solomon D et al. Phase I crossover study of paclitaxel with r-verapamil in patients with metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1996;14:1173-1184.
97. Horwitz SB, Lothstein L, Manfredi JJ et al. Taxol: Mechanisms of action and resistance. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1986;466:733-744.
98. Torres K, Horwitz SB. Mechanisms of Taxol-induced cell death are concentration dependent. Cancer Research 1998;58:3620-3626.
99. Allegra CJ, Chabner BA, Drake JC et al. Enhanced inhibition of thymidylate synthase by methotrexate polyglutamates. J Biol Chem 1985;260:9720-9726.
100. Priest DG, Ledford BE, Doig MT. Increased thymidylate synthetase in 5-fluorodeoxyuridine resistant cultured hepatoma cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1980;29:1549-1553.
101. Bapat AR, Zarow C, Danenberg PV. Human leukemic cells resistant to 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine contain a thymidylate synthetase with lower affinity for nucleotides. J Biol Chem 1983;258:4130-4136.
102. Hsueh CT, Dolnick BJ. Regulation of folate-binding protein gene expression by DNA methylation in methotrexate-resistant KB cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1994;47:1019-1027.
103. Cowan KH, Jolivet J. A methotrexate-resistant human breast cancer cell line with multiple defects, including diminished formation of methotrexate polyglutamates. J Biol Chem 1984;259:10793-10800.
104. Grant SC, Kris MG, Young CW et al. Edatrexate, an antifolate with antitumor activity: A review. [Review]. Cancer Invest 1993;11:36-45.
105. Sirotnak FM, Moccio DM, Kelleher LE et al. Relative frequency and kinetic properties of transport-defective phenotypes among methotrexate-resistant L1210 clonal cell lines derived in vivo. Cancer Res 1981;41:4447-4452.
106. Dixon KH, Lanpher BC, Chiu J et al. A novel cDNA restores reduced folate carrier activity and methotrexate sensitivity to transport deficient cells. J Biol Chem 1994;269:17-20.
107. Chung KN, Saikawa Y, Paik TH et al. Stable transfectants of human MCF-7 breast cancer cells with increased levels of the human folate receptor exhibit an increased sensitivity to antifolates. J Clin Invest 1993;91:1289-1294.
108. Kool M, van der LM, de Haas M et al. MRP3, an organic anion transporter able to transport anti-cancer drugs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:6914-6919.
109. Hooijberg JH, Broxterman HJ, Scheffer GL et al. Potent interaction of flavopiridol with MRP1. British Journal of Cancer 1999;81:269-276.
110. Cowan KH, Jolivet J. A methotrexate-resistant human breast cancer cell line with multiple defects, including diminished formation of methotrexate polyglutamates. J Biol Chem 1984;259:10793-10800.
111. Volk EL, Rohde K, Rhee M et al. Methotrexate cross-resistance in a mitoxantrone-selected multidrug-resistant MCF7 breast cancer cell line is attributable to enhanced energy-dependent drug efflux. Cancer Res 2000;60:3514-3521.
112. Rhee MS, Wang Y, Nair MG et al. Acquisition of resistance to antifolates caused by enhanced gamma-glutamyl hydrolase activity. Cancer Res 1993;53:2227-2230.
113. Spears CP. Clinical resistance to antimetabolites. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1995;9:397-413.
114. Ackland SP, Schilsky RL. High-dose methotrexate: A critical reappraisal. J Clin Oncol 1987;5:2017-2031.
115. Kamen BA, Winick NJ. High dose methotrexate therapy: Insecure rationale? Biochem Pharmacol 1988;37:2713-2715.
116. Jackson RC, Jackman AL, Calvert AH. Biochemical effects of a quinazoline inhibitor of thymidylate synthetase, N-(4-(N-((2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-quinazolinyl) methyl) prop-2-ynylamino) benzoyl)-L-glutamic acid (CB3717), on human lymphoblastoid cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1983;32:3783-3790.
117. Beardsley GP, Moroson BA, Taylor EC et al. A new folate antimetabolite, 5, 10-dideaza-5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydrofolate is a potent inhibitor of de novo purine synthesis. J Biol Chem 1989;264:328-333.
118. Elias L, Crissman HA. Interferon effects upon the adenocarcinoma 38 and HL-60 cell lines: Antiproliferative responses and synergistic interactions with halogenated pyrimidine antimetabolites. Cancer Res 1988;48:4868-4873.
119. Auerbach M, Elias EG, Orford J. Experience with methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, and leucovorin (MFL): A first line effective, minimally toxic regimen for metastatic breast cancer. Cancer Invest 2002;20:24-28.
120. Klatt O, Stehlin Jr JS, McBride C et al. The effect of nitrogen mustard treatment on the deoxyribonucleic acid of sensitive and resistant Ehrlich tumor cells. Cancer Res 1969;29:286-290.
121. Nogae I, Kohno K, Kikuchi J et al. Analysis of structural features of dihydropyridine analogs needed to reverse multidrug resistance and to inhibit photoaffinity labeling of P-glycoprotein. Biochem Pharmacol 1989;38:519-527.
122. Zamble DB, Lippard SJ. Cisplatin and DNA repair in cancer chemotherapy. Trends Biochem Sci 1995;20:435-439.
123. Fairchild CR, Moscow JA, O'Brien EE et al. Multidrug resistance in cells transfected with human genes encoding a variant P-glycoprotein and glutathione S-transferase-pi. Mol Pharmacol 1990;37:801-809.
124. Townsend AJ, Tu CP, Cowan KH. Expression of human mu or alpha class glutathione S-transferases in stably transfected human MCF-7 breast cancer cells: Effect on cellular sensitivity to cytotoxic agents. Mol Pharmacol 1992;41:230-236.
125. Hilton J. Deoxyribonucleic acid crosslinking by 4- hydroperoxycyclophosphamide in cyclophosphamide-sensitive and-Resistant L1210 cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1984;33:1867-1872.
126. Perez RP. Cellular and molecular determinants of cisplatin resistance. Eur J Cancer 1998;34:1535-1542.
127. Perez RP. Cellular and molecular determinants of cisplatin resistance. Eur J Cancer 1998;34:1535-1542.
128. Mackey JR, Mani RS, Selner M et al. Functional nucleoside transporters are required for gemcitabine influx and manifestation of toxicity in cancer cell lines. Cancer Res 1998;58:4349-4357.
129. Mackey JR, Mani RS, Selner M et al. Functional nucleoside transporters are required for gemcitabine influx and manifestation of toxicity in cancer cell lines. Cancer Res 1998;58:4349-4357.
130. Ruiz V H V, Veerman G, Eriksson S et al. Development and molecular characterization of a 2′, 2′-difluorodeoxycytidine-resistant variant of the human ovarian carcinoma cell line A2780. Cancer Res 1994;54:4138-4143.
131. Goan YG, Zhou B, Hu E et al. Overexpression of ribonucleotide reductase as a mechanism of resistance to 2, 2-difluorodeoxycytidine in the human KB cancer cell line. Cancer Res 1999;59:4204-4207.
132. Bergman AM, Pinedo HM, Jongsma AP et al. Decreased resistance to gemcitabine (2′, 2′-difluorodeoxycitidine) of cytosine arabinoside-resistant myeloblastic murine and rat leukemia cell lines: Role of altered activity and substrate specificity of deoxycytidine kinase. Biochem Pharmacol 1999;57:397-406.
133. Schirmer M, Stegmann AP, Geisen F et al. Lack of cross-resistance with gemcitabine and cytarabine in cladribine-resistant HL60 cells with elevated 5′-nucleotidase activity. Exp Hematol 1998;26:1223-1228.
134. Abbruzzese JL, Grunewald R, Weeks EA et al. A phase I clinical, plasma, and cellular pharmacology study of gemcitabine. J Clin Oncol 1991;9:491-498.
135. Roodi N, Bailey LR, Kao WY et al. Estrogen receptor gene analysis in estrogen receptor-positive and receptor-negative primary breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:446-451.
136. Gottardis MM, Jordan VC. Development of tamoxifen-stimulated growth of MCF-7 tumors in athymic mice after long-term antiestrogen administration. Cancer Res 1988;48:5183-5187.
137. Pietras RJ, Arboleda J, Reese DM et al. Her-2 tyrosine kinase pathway targets estrogen receptor and promotes hormone-independent growth in human breast cancer cells. Oncogene 1995;10:2435-2446.
138. Gottardis MM, Martin MK, Jordan VC. Long-term tamoxifen therapy to control transplanted human breast tumor growth in athymic mice. In: Salmon SE, ed. Adjuvant Therapy of Cancer V. Orlando: 1987:447-453.
139. Lavinsky RM, Jepsen K, Heinzel T et al. Diverse signaling pathways modulate nuclear receptor recruitment of N-CoR and SMRT complexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:2920-2925.
140. Dauvois S, White R, Parker MG. The antiestrogen ICI 182780 disrupts estrogen receptor nucleocytoplasmic shuttling. J Cell Sci 1993;106(Pt 4):1377-1388.
141. Parker MG, Arbuckle N, Dauvois S et al. Structure and function of the estrogen receptor. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993;684:119-126.
142. Baselga J, Norton L, Albanell J et al. Recombinant humanized anti-HER2 antibody (Herceptin) enhances the antitumor activity of paclitaxel and doxorubicin against HER2/neu overexpressing human breast cancer xenografts. Cancer Research 1998;58:2825-2831.
143. Sliwkowski MX, Lofgren JA, Lewis GD et al. Nonclinical studies addressing the mechanism of action of trastuzumab (Herceptin). Semin Oncol 1999;26:60-70.
144. Lewis GD, Figari I, Fendly B et al. Differential responses of human tumor cell lines to anti-p185HER2 monoclonal antibodies. Cancer Immunol Immunother 1993;37:255-263.
145. Pegram MD, Baly D, Wirth C et al. Antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in breast cancer patients in Phase III clinical trials of a humanized anti-HER2 antibody. Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research 1997;38:602.
146. Pegram M, Hsu S, Lewis G et al. Inhibitory effects of combinations of HER-2/neu antibody and chemotherapeutic agents used for treatment of human breast cancers. Oncogene 1999;18:2241-2251.
147. Argiris A, Wang CX, Whalen SG et al. Synergistic interactions between tamoxifen and trastuzumab (Herceptin). Clin Cancer Res 2004;10:1409-1420.
148. Sachdev D, Yee D. The IGF system and breast cancer. <[11] Journal Name> 2001;8:197-209.
149. Miller KD. The role of ErbB inhibitors in trastuzumab resistance. Oncologist 2004;9(Suppl 3):16-19.
150. Moulder SL, Yakes FM, Muthuswamy SK et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor (HER1) tyrosine kinase inhibitor ZD1839 (Iressa) inhibits HER2/neu (erbB2)-overexpressing breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res 2001;61:8887-8895.
151. Esteva FJ. Monoclonal antibodies, small molecules, and vaccines in the treatment of breast cancer. Oncologist 2004;9(Suppl 3):4-9.
152. Chernicky CL, Tan H, Yi L et al. Treatment of murine breast cancer cells with antisense RNA to the type I insulin-like growth factor receptor decreases the level of plasminogen activator transcripts, inhibits cell growth in vitro, and reduces tumorigenesis in vivo. Mol Pathol 2002;55:102-109.
153. Lu YH, Zi XL, Zhao YH et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I receptor signaling and resistance to trastuzumab (Herceptin). J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:1852-1857.
154. Nagata Y, Lan KH, Zhou X et al. PTEN activation contributes to tumor inhibition by trastuzumab, and loss of PTEN predicts trastuzumab resistance in patients. Cancer Cell 2004;6:117-127.
155. Schrag D, Garewal HS, Burstein HJ et al. American society of clinical oncology technology assessment: Chemotherapy sensitivity and resistance assays. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:3631-3638.
156. Xu JM, Song ST, Tang ZM et al. Predictive chemotherapy of advanced breast cancer directed by MTT assay in vitro. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1999;53:77-85.
157. Symmans WF, Ayers M, Clark EA et al. Total RNA yield and microarray gene expression profiles from fine-needle aspiration biopsy and coreneedle biopsy samples of breast carcinoma. Cancer 2003;97:2960-71.
158. Chang JC, Wooten EC, Tsimelzon A et al. Gene expression profiling for the prediction of therapeutic response to docetaxel in patients with breast cancer. Lancet 2003;2(362):362-9.