Schizoaffective disorder: Diagnostic issues and future recommendations

Bipolar Disorders

Volumn 10, Issue 1 PART 2, 2008, Pages 215-230

  Malhi, Gin S ^a,f   Green, Melissa ^b   Fagiolini, Andrea ^c   Peselow, Eric D ^d   Kumari, Veena ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^f ROYAL NORTH SHORE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bipolar disorder; Diagnosis; Disorder; DSM IV; Guidelines; Psychosis; Schizoaffective; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLOZAPINE; HALOPERIDOL; LITHIUM; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PLACEBO; RISPERIDONE; VALPROIC ACID;

AFFECTIVE PSYCHOSIS; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BRAIN SIZE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITION; COMORBIDITY; DENDRITIC CELL; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE DURATION; DRUG MECHANISM; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; EMPIRICAL RESEARCH; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GENETIC ANALYSIS; GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY; GLIA CELL; HEREDITY; HERITABILITY; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MOLECULAR GENETICS; MONOTHERAPY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; NOMENCLATURE; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; ONSET AGE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHENOMENOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; SCHIZOAFFECTIVE PSYCHOSIS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEX DIFFERENCE; VALIDITY;

BIPOLAR DISORDER; COMORBIDITY; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES; PHENOTYPE; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; RISK FACTORS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY;

EID: 38049144120     PISSN: 13985647     EISSN: 13995618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2007.00564.x     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Maier W. Do schizoaffective disorders exist at all? Acta Psychiatr Scand 2006; 113: 369-371.
2. Kasanin K. The acute schizoaffective psychoses. Am J Psychiatry 1933; 90: 97-126.
3. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 1st edn. Washington DC, USA: American Psychiatric Association, 1952.
4. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2nd edn. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychiatric Association, 1968.
5. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychiatric Association, 1980.
6. APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn, Revised. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychiatric Association, 1987.
7. Lehman HE. Schizophrenia: Clinical features. In: Freedman AM, Kaplan HI, Saddock JB eds. Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Williams, 1975: 457-486.
8. Clayton PJ, Rodin L, Winokur G. Family history studies. 3. Schizoaffective disorder, clinical and genetic factors including a one to two year follow-up. Compr Psychiatry 1968; 9: 31-49.
9. Procci WR. Schizo-affective psychosis: Fact or fiction? A survey of the literature. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976; 33: 1167-1178.
10. Crow TJ. The continuum of psychosis and its implication for the structure of the gene. Br J Psychiatry 1986; 149: 419-429.
11. Lake CR, Hurwitz N. Schizoaffective disorders are psychotic mood disorders; there are no schizoaffective disorders. Psychiatry Res 2006; 143: 255-287.
12. Kempf L, Hussain N, Potash JB. Mood disorder with psychotic features, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia with mood features: Trouble at the borders. Int Rev Psychiatry 2005; 17: 9-19.
13. Vollmer-Larsen A, Jacobsen TB, Hemmingsen R, Parnas J. Schizoaffective disorder - the reliability of its clinical diagnostic use. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2006; 113: 402-407.
14. Maj M, Pirozzi R, Formicola AM, Bartoli L, Bucci P. Reliability and validity of the DSM-IV diagnostic category of schizoaffective disorder: preliminary data. J Affect Disord 2000; 57: 95-98.
15. Salokangas RK, Honkonen T, Saarinen S. Women have later onset than men in schizophrenia - but only in its paranoid form. Results of the DSP project. Eur Psychiatry 2003; 18: 274-281.
16. Salokangas RK, Vaahtera K, Pacriev S, Sohlman B, Lehtinen V. Gender differences in depressive symptoms. An artefact caused by measurement instruments? J Affect Disord 2002; 68: 215-220.
17. Sim K, Mahendran R, Siris SG, Heckers S, Chong SA. Subjective quality of life in first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders with comorbid depression. Psychiatry Res 2004; 129: 141-147.
18. Hafner H, Maurer K, Trendler G, van der Heiden W, Schmidt M, Konnecke R. Schizophrenia and depression: Challenging the paradigm of two separate diseases - a controlled study of schizophrenia, depression and healthy controls. Schizophr Res 2005; 77: 11-24.
19. Siris SG. Depression in schizophrenia: Perspective in the era of 'Atypical' antipsychotic agents. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1379-1389.
20. Moller HJ, von Zerssen D. Depressive states occurring during the neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1982; 8: 109-117.
21. Goodwin FK, Jamison KR. Manic-Depressive Illness. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
22. Schwartz JE, Fennig S, Tanenberg-Karant M et al. Congruence of diagnoses 2years after a first-admission diagnosis of psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 593-600.
23. Nardi AE, Nascimento I, Freire RC et al. Demographic and clinical features of schizoaffective (schizobipolar) disorder - a 5-year retrospective study. Support for a bipolar spectrum disorder. J Affect Disord 2005; 89: 201-206.
24. Harrow M, Grossman LS, Herbener ES, Davies EW. Ten-year outcome: patients with schizoaffective disorders, schizophrenia, affective disorders and mood-incongruent psychotic symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 2000; 177: 421-426.
25. Pini S, de Queiroz V, Dell'Osso L et al. Cross-sectional similarities and differences between schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and mania or mixed mania with mood-incongruent psychotic features. Eur Psychiatry 2004; 19: 8-14.
26. Benabarre A, Vieta E, Colom F, Martinez-Aran A, Reinares M, Gasto C. Bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia: epidemiologic, clinical and prognostic differences. Eur Psychiatry 2001; 16: 167-172.
27. Cannon TD, Kaprio J, Lonnqvist J, Huttunen M, Koskenvuo M. The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort. A population-based modeling study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 67-74.
28. Farmer AE, McGuffin P, Gottesman R, II. Twin concordance for DSM-III schizophrenia. Scrutinizing the validity of the definition. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 634-641.
29. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, O'Hare A, Spellman M, Walsh D. The Roscommon Family Study. I. Methods, diagnosis of probands, and risk of schizophrenia in relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 527-540.
30. Craddock N, Jones I. Genetics of bipolar disorder. J Med Genet 1999; 36: 585-594.
31. Dick DM, Foroud T, Flury L et al. Genomewide linkage analyses of bipolar disorder: A new sample of 250 pedigrees from the National Institute of Mental Health Genetics Initiative. Am J Hum Genet 2003; 73: 107-114, [erratum appears in Am J Hum Genet 2003 October; 73(4): 979].
32. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, Adamo UH, Rock D et al. The New York High-Risk Project. Prevalence and comorbidity of axis I disorders in offspring of schizophrenic parents at 25-year follow-up. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 1096-1102.
33. Kendler KS, Gruenberg AM, Tsuang MT. Psychiatric illness in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic and surgical control patients. A family study using DSM-III criteria. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42: 770-779.
34. Ghaemi SN. Mood Disorders: A Practical Guide. Philadephia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
35. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Walsh D. Evaluating the spectrum concept of schizophrenia in the Roscommon Family Study. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 749-754.
36. Gershon ES, Hamovit J, Guroff JJ et al. A family study of schizoaffective, bipolar I, bipolar II, unipolar, and normal control probands. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39: 1157-1167.
37. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, O'Hare A, Spellman M, Walsh D. The Roscommon Family Study. IV. Affective illness, anxiety disorders, and alcoholism in relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 952-960.
38. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, Spellman M, O'Hare A, Walsh D. The Roscommon Family Study. II. The risk of nonschizophrenic nonaffective psychoses in relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 645-652.
39. Cardno AG, Rijsdijk FV, Sham PC, Murray RM, McGuffin P. A twin study of genetic relationships between psychotic symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 539-545.
40. Gershon ES, DeLisi LE, Hamovit J et al. A controlled family study of chronic psychoses. Schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 328-336.
41. Maier W, Lichtermann D, Minges J et al. Continuity and discontinuity of affective disorders and schizophrenia. Results of a controlled family study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 871-883.
42. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, Walsh D. Examining the validity of DSM-III-R schizoaffective disorder and its putative subtypes in the Roscommon Family Study. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 755-764.
43. Taylor MA. Are schizophrenia and affective disorder related? A selective literature review. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 22-32.
44. Tsuang MT, Simpson JC. Schizoaffective disorder: Concept and reality. Schizophr Bull 1984; 10: 14-25.
45. Potash JB. Carving chaos: Genetics and the classification of mood and psychotic syndromes. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2006; 14: 47-63.
46. Craddock N, Owen MJ. The beginning of the end for the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Br J Psychiatry 2005; 186: 364-366.
47. Berrettini WH. Molecular linkage studies of bipolar disorders. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3: 276-283.
48. Potash JB, Chiu YF, MacKinnon DF et al. Familial aggregation of psychotic symptoms in a replication set of 69 bipolar disorder pedigrees. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2003; 116: 90-97.
49. Potash JB, Zandi PP, Willour VL et al. Suggestive linkage to chromosomal regions 13q31 and 22q12 in families with psychotic bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 680-686.
50. Craddock N, O'Donovan MC, Owen MJ. Genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Dissecting of psychosis. J Med Genet 2005; 42: 193-204.
51. Fallin MD, Lasseter VK, Avramopoulos D et al. Bipolar I disorder and schizophrenia: A 440-single-nucleotide polymorphism screen of 64 candidate genes among Ashkenazi Jewish case-parent trios. Am J Hum Genet 2005; 77: 918-936.
52. Bearden CE, Freimer NB. Endophenotypes for psychiatric disorders: Ready for primetime? Trends Genet 2006; 22: 306-313.
53. Krabbendam L, Arts B, van Os J, Aleman A. Cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A quantitative review. Schizophr Res 2005; 80: 137-149.
54. Malhi GS, Ivanovski B, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Mitchell PB, Vieta E, Sachdev P. Neuropsychological deficits and functional impairment in bipolar depression, hypomania and euthymia. Bipolar Disord 2007; 9: 114-125.
55. Burdick KE, Goldberg JF, Harrow M, Faull RN, Malhotra AK. Neurocognition as a stable endophenotype in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 2006; 194: 255-260.
56. Quraishi S, Frangou S. Neuropsychology of bipolar disorder: A review. J Affect Disord 2002; 72: 209-226.
57. Rund BR. A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive functions in schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 1998; 24: 425-435.
58. Rosa A, Peralta V, Cuesta MJ et al. New evidence of association between COMT gene and prefrontal neurocognitive function in healthy individuals from sibling pairs discordant for psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1110-1112.
59. Zalla T, Joyce C, Szoke A et al. Executive dysfunctions as potential markers of familial vulnerability to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2004; 121: 207-217.
60. Heydebrand G. Cognitive deficits in the families of patients with schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006; 19: 277-281.
61. McIntosh AM, Harrison LK, Forrester K, Lawrie SM, Johnstone EC. Neuropsychological impairments in people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives. Br J Psychiatry 2005; 186: 378-385.
62. Glahn DC, Bearden CE, Cakir S et al. Differential working memory impairment in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: Effects of lifetime history of psychosis. Bipolar Disord 2006; 8: 117-123.
63. Glahn DC, Bearden CE, Caetano S et al. Declarative memory impairment in pediatric bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7: 546-554.
64. Glahn DC, Bearden CE, Niendam TA, Escamilla MA. The feasibility of neuropsychological endophenotypes in the search for genes associated with bipolar affective disorder. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 171-182.
65. Frangou S, Haldane M, Roddy D, Kumari V. Evidence for deficit in tasks of ventral, but not dorsal, prefrontal executive function as an endophenotypic marker for bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2005; 58: 838-839.
66. Frangou S, Dakhil N, Landau S, Kumari V. Fronto-temporal function may distinguish bipolar disorder from schizophrenia. Bipolar Disord 2006; 8: 47-55.
67. Beatty WW, Jocic Z, Monson N, Staton RD. Memory and frontal lobe dysfunction in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1993; 181: 448-453.
68. Gruber O, Gruber E, Falkai P. Articulatory rehearsal in verbal working memory: A possible neurocognitive endophenotype that differentiates between schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Neurosci Lett 2006; 405: 24-28.
69. Broerse A, Crawford TJ, den Boer JA. Parsing cognition in schizophrenia using saccadic eye movements: A selective overview. Neuropsychologia 2001; 39: 742-756.
70. Crawford TJ, Bennett D, Lekwuwa G, Shaunak S, Deakin JF. Cognition and the inhibitory control of saccades in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. Prog Brain Res 2002; 140: 449-466.
71. Hutton SB, Joyce EM, Barnes TR, Kennard C. Saccadic distractibility in first-episode schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia 2002; 40: 1729-1736.
72. Kumari V, Ettinger U, Crawford TJ, Zachariah E, Sharma T. Lack of association between prepulse inhibition and antisaccadic deficits in chronic schizophrenia: Implications for identification of schizophrenia endophenotypes. J Psychiatr Res 2005; 39: 227-240.
73. Cadenhead KS, Light GA, Geyer MA, McDowell JE, Braff DL. Neurobiological measures of schizotypal personality disorder: Defining an inhibitory endophenotype? Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 869-871.
74. Hutton SB, Ettinger U. The antisaccade task as a research tool in psychopathology: A critical review. Psychophysiology 2006; 43: 302-313.
75. Crawford TJ, Sharma T, Puri BK, Murray RM, Berridge DM, Lewis SW. Saccadic eye movements in families multiply affected with schizophrenia: the Maudsley Family Study. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1703-1710.
76. Curtis CE, Calkins ME, Grove WM, Feil KJ, Iacono WG. Saccadic disinhibition in patients with acute and remitted schizophrenia and their first-degree biological relatives. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 100-106.
77. McDowell JE, Clementz BA. The effect of fixation condition manipulations on antisaccade performance in schizophrenia: Studies of diagnostic specificity. Exp Brain Res 1997; 115: 333-344.
78. Gooding DC, Tallent KA. The association between antisaccade task and working memory task performance in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 2001; 189: 8-16.
79. Katsanis J, Kortenkamp S, Iacono WG, Grove WM. Antisaccade performance in patients with schizophrenia and affective disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1997; 106: 468-472.
80. Tien AY, Ross DE, Pearlson G, Strauss ME. Eye movements and psychopathology in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996; 184: 331-338.
81. Crawford TJ, Haeger B, Kennard C, Reveley MA, Henderson L. Saccadic abnormalities in psychotic patients. I. Neuroleptic-free psychotic patients. Psychol Med 1995; 25: 461-471.
82. Gooding DC, Mohapatra L, Shea HB. Temporal stability of saccadic task performance in schizophrenia and bipolar patients. Psychol Med 2004; 34: 921-932.
83. Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Muri RM, Ploner CJ, Gaymard B, Demeret S, Rivaud-Pechoux S. Decisional role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in ocular motor behaviour. Brain 2003; 126: 1460-1473.
84. Kumari V, Cooke M. Use of magnetic resonance imaging in tracking the course and treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Rev Neurother 2006; 6: 1005-1016.
85. Braff DL, Geyer MA, Swerdlow NR. Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: Normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies. Psychopharmacology 2001; 156: 234-258.
86. Ludewig K, Geyer MA, Vollenweider FX. Deficits in prepulse inhibition and habituation in never-medicated, first-episode schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54: 121-128.
87. Perry W, Minassian A, Feifel D, Braff DL. Sensorimotor gating deficits in bipolar disorder patients with acute psychotic mania. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 418-424.
88. Barrett SL, Kelly C, Watson DR, Bell R, King DJ. Normal levels of prepulse inhibition in the euthymic phase of bipolar disorder. Psychol Med 2005; 35: 1737-1746.
89. Cadenhead KS, Swerdlow NR, Shafer KM, Diaz M, Braff DL. Modulation of the startle response and startle laterality in relatives of schizophrenic patients and in subjects with schizotypal personality disorder: Evidence of inhibitory deficits. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1660-1668, [erratum appears in Am J Psychiatry 2000 November; 157(11): 1904].
90. Kumari V, Das M, Zachariah E, Ettinger U, Sharma T. Reduced prepulse inhibition in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients. Psychophysiology 2005; 42: 588-594.
91. Berrettini WH. Are schizophrenic and bipolar disorders related? A review of family and molecular studies. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 531-538.
92. Yung AR, McGorry PD. The prodromal phase of first-episode psychosis: past and current conceptualizations. Schizophr Bull 1996; 22: 353-370.
93. Simon AE, Dvorsky DN, Boesch J et al. Defining subjects at risk for psychosis: A comparison of two approaches. Schizophr Res 2006; 81: 83-90.
94. Cornblatt BA, Lencz T, Smith CW, Correll CU, Auther AM, Nakayama E. The schizophrenia prodrome revisited: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Schizophr Bull 2003; 29: 633-651.
95. Hirayasu Y, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF et al. Lower left temporal lobe MRI volumes in patients with first-episode schizophrenia compared with psychotic patients with first-episode affective disorder and normal subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1384-1391.
96. Casey DE, Daniel DG, Wassef AA. Effect of divalproex combined with olanzapine or risperidone in patients with an acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28: 182-192.
97. Keck PE, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM. Schizoaffective disorder: Role of atypical antipsychotics. Schizophr Res 1999; 35(Suppl.): S5-S12.
98. Ceskova E, Svestka J. Double-blind comparison of risperidone and haloperidol in schizophrenic and schizoaffective psychoses. Pharmacopsychiatry 1993; 26: 121-124.
99. Tollefson GD, Beasley CM, Tamura RN, Tran PV, Potvin JH. Blind, controlled, long-term study of the comparative incidence of treatment-emergent tardive dyskinesia with olanzapine or haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1248-1254.
100. Malholtra AK, Litman RE, Su TP. Clozapine response in schizoaffective disorder. Scientific Proceedings of the 146th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. 1993 San Francisco, CA: New Research Abstracts of the 146th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, 1993: 146.
101. Baethge C. Long-term treatment of schizoaffective disorder: Review and recommendations. Pharmacopsychiatry 2003; 36: 45-56.
102. Goldberg JF, Ghaemi SN. Benefits and limitations of antidepressants and traditional mood stabilizers for treatment of bipolar depression. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7(Suppl. 5): 3-12.
103. Malhi GS, Berk M, Bourin M, Ivanovski B, Dodd S, Lagopoulos J. Atypical mood stabilizers: A typical role for atypical antipsychotics. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005; 111(Suppl. 426): 29-38.
104. Rose SE, Chalk JB, Janke AL et al. Evidence of altered prefrontal-thalamic circuitry in schizophrenia: An optimized diffusion MRI study. Neuroimage 2006; 32: 16-22.
105. Pantelis C, Yucel M, Wood SJ et al. Structural brain imaging evidence for multiple pathological processes at different stages of brain development in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2005; 31: 672-696.
106. Velakoulis D, Wood SJ, Wong MT et al. Hippocampal and amygdala volumes according to psychosis stage and diagnosis: A magnetic resonance imaging study of chronic schizophrenia, first-episode psychosis, and ultra-high-risk individuals. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 139-149.
107. Hirayasu Y, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF et al. Subgenual cingulate cortex volume in first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1091-1093.
108. Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JR, Jr et al. Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature 1997; 386: 824-827.
109. Javadpour A, Malhi GS, Ivanovski B. Increased anterior cingulated cortex volume in bipolar I disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2007; 910-916.
110. Fornito A, Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J et al. In vivo evidence for early neurodevelopmental anomaly of the anterior cingulate cortex in bipolar disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007; 116: 467-472.
111. DelBello MP, Zimmerman ME, Mills NP, Getz GE, Strakowski SM. Magnetic resonance imaging analysis of amygdala and other subcortical brain regions in adolescents with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 43-52.
112. Strakowski S, DelBello M, Adler C. The functional neuroanatomy of bipolar disorder: A review of neuroimaging findings. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 105-116.
113. Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Sax KW et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging of structural abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56: 254-260.
114. Salokangas RK, Cannon T, Van Erp T et al. Structural magnetic resonance imaging in patients with first-episode schizophrenia, psychotic and severe non-psychotic depression and healthy controls. Results of the schizophrenia and affective psychoses (SAP) project. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 2002; 43: S58-s65.
115. McDonald C, Marshall N, Sham PC et al. Regional brain morphometry in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 478-487.
116. McIntosh AM, Job DE, Moorhead TW, Harrison LK, Lawrie SM, Johnstone EC. White matter density in patients with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives. Biol Psychiatry 2005; 58: 254-257.
117. Getz GE, DelBello MP, Fleck DE, Zimmerman ME, Schwiers ML, Strakowski SM. Neuroanatomic characterization of schizoaffective disorder using MRI: A pilot study. Schizophr Res 2002; 55: 55-59.
118. Callicott JH. An expanded role for functional neuroimaging in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2003; 13: 256-260.
119. Glahn DC, Ragland JD, Abramoff A et al. Beyond hypofrontality: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia. Hum Brain Mapp 2005; 25: 60-69.
120. Manoach DS. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: Reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophr Res 2003; 60: 285-298.
121. Callicott JH, Egan MF, Mattay VS et al. Abnormal fMRI response of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in cognitively intact siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 709-719, [erratum appears in Am J Psychiatry 2004 June; 161(6): 1145].
122. Thermenos HW, Seidman LJ, Breiter H et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging during auditory verbal working memory in nonpsychotic relatives of persons with schizophrenia: A pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 490-500.
123. Whalley HC, Simonotto E, Flett S et al. fMRI correlates of state and trait effects in subjects at genetically enhanced risk of schizophrenia. Brain 2004; 3: 478-490.
124. Adler CM, DelBello MP, Strakowski SM. Brain network dysfunction in bipolar disorder. CNS Spectr 2006; 11: 312-320, quiz 323-324.
125. Adler CM, Holland SK, Schmithorst V, Tuchfarber MJ, Strakowski SM. Changes in neuronal activation in patients with bipolar disorder during performance of a working memory task. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 540-549.
126. Monks PJ, Thompson JM, Bullmore ET et al. A functional MRI study of working memory task in euthymic bipolar disorder: Evidence for task-specific dysfunction. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 550-564.
127. Strakowski SM, Adler CM, Holland SK, Mills N, DelBello MP. A preliminary FMRI study of sustained attention in euthymic, unmedicated bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29: 1734-1740.
128. Strakowski SM, Adler CM, Holland SK, Mills NP, DelBello MP, Eliassen JC. Abnormal FMRI brain activation in euthymic bipolar disorder patients during a counting Stroop interference task. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1697-1705.
129. Lagopoulos J, Ivanovski B, Malhi GS. An event-related functional MRI study of working memory in euthymic bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2007; 32: 174-184.
130. Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J, Sachdev PS, Ivanovski B, Shnier R, Ketter T. Is a lack of disgust something to fear? A functional magnetic resonance imaging facial emotion recognition study in euthymic bipolar disorder patients. Bipolar Disord 2007; 9: 345-357.
131. Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J, Owen AM, Ivanovski B, Shnier R, Sachdev P. Reduced activation to implicit affect induction in euthymic bipolar patients: An fMRI study. J Affect Disord 2007; 97: 109-122.
132. Kendler KS, McGuire M, Gruenberg AM, Walsh D. Schizotypal symptoms and signs in the Roscommon Family Study. Their factor structure and familial relationship with psychotic and affective disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52: 296-303.
133. Bentall RP ed. Reconstructing Schizophrenia. London, UK: Routledge, 1990.
134. Boyle M. Schizophrenia: A Scientific Delusion? London, UK: Routledge, 1990.
135. Faraone SV, Kremen WS, Lyons MJ, Pepple JR, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT. Diagnostic accuracy and linkage analysis: How useful are schizophrenia spectrum phenotypes? Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1286-1290.
136. Tsuang MT, Stone WS, Faraone SV. Toward reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1041-1050.
137. Ventura MA, Green MF, Shaner A, Liberman RP. Training and quality assurance with the brief psychiatric rating scale: 'the drift buster'. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 1993; 3: 221-244.
138. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1987; 13: 261-276.