Biomarkers in sepsis and inflammation;Biomarker bei sepsis und entzündung

LaboratoriumsMedizin

Volumn 31, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 294-309

  Fraunberger, Peter ^a   Walli, Autar K ^b  

^a Medizinisches Zentrallabor GesmbH ^*  (Austria)

^b LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Biomarker; Cholesterol; Cytokines; IL 6; Inflammation; PCT; Sepsis

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CHOLESTIN; CYTOKINE; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE BINDING PROTEIN; PROCALCITONIN;

DEVELOPING COUNTRY; FOLLOW UP; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK;

EID: 36849067062     PISSN: 03423026     EISSN: 14390477     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/JLM.2007.045     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Billiau A, Vandekerckhove F. Cytokines and their interactions with other inflammatory mediators in the pathogenesis of sepsis and septic shock. Eur J Clin Invest 1991;21:559-73.
2. Tracey KJ, Lowry SF. The role of cytokine mediators in septic shock. Adv Surg 1990;23:123-8.
3. Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE. The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 2003;348:138-50.
4. Ward PA. Role of the complement in experimental sepsis. J Leukoc Biol 2007; [Epub ahead of print].
5. Chiolero R, Revelly JP, Tappy L. Energy metabolism in sepsis and injury. Nutrition 1997;13:45S-51S.
6. Majno G. The ancient riddle of sigma eta psi iota sigma (sepsis). J Infect Dis 1991;163:937-45.
7. Baron RM, Baron MJ, Perrella MA. Pathobiology of sepsis: are we still asking the same questions? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006;34:129-34.
8. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, Abraham E, Angus D, Cook D, et al. SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1250-6.
9. Annane D, Bellissant E, Cavaillon JM. Septic shock. Lancet 2005;365:63-78.
10. Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bone HG, Brunkhorst R, Gerlach H, Grond S, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis in Germany: results from a national prospective multicenter study. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:606-18.
11. Reinhart K, Brunkhorst F, Bone H, Gerlach H, Grundling M, Kreymann G, et al. Deutschen Interdisziplinaren Vereinigung fur Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin (DIVI); Deutschen Sepsis-Gesellschaft e.V. (DSG). Diagnosis and therapy of sepsis. Guidelines of the German Sepsis Society Inc. and the German Interdisciplinary Society for Intensive and Emergency Medicine. Internist (Berl) 2006;47:356, 358-60, 362-8, passim.
12. Old LJ. Der Tumor-Nekrose-Faktor. Spektrum der Wissenschaft 1988;42-51.
13. Gery I, Gershon RK, Waksman BH. Potentiation of cultured mouse thymocyte response by factors released by peripheral leucocytes. J Immunol 1971;107:1778-80.
14. Balkwill FR. Interferons. Lancet 1989;13:1060-3.
15. Carswell EA, Old LJ, Kassel RL, Green S, Fiore N, Williamson B. An endotoxin-induced serum factor that causes necrosis of tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1975;72:3666-70.
16. Cohen S. Cell mediated immunity and the inflammatory system. Hum Pathol 1976;7:249-64.
17. Dinarello CA. Proinflammatory Cytokines. Chest 2000;118:503-8.
18. Tracey KJ, Lowry SF. The role of cytokine mediators in septic shock. Adv Surg 1990;23:123-8.
19. Tracey KJ, Cerami A. Tumor necrosis factor: a pleiotropic cytokine and therapeutic target. Annu Rev Med 1994;45:491-503.
20. van der Poll T, Jansen J, van Leenen D, von der Mohlen M, Levi M, ten Cate H, et al. Release of soluble receptors for tumor necrosis factor in clinical sepsis and experimental endotoxemia. J Infect Dis 1993;168:955-60.
21. Mathison JC, Wolfson E, Ulevitch RJ. Participation of tumor necrosis factor in the mediation of gram negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced injury in rabbits. J Clin Invest 1988;81:1925-37.
22. Tracey KJ, Cerami A. Tumor necrosis factor: an updated review of its biology. Crit Care Med 1993;21:S415-22.
23. Marano MA, Fong Y, Moldawer LL, Wei H, Calvano SE, Tracey KJ, et al. Serum cachectin/tumor necrosis factor in critically ill patients with burns correlates with infection and mortality. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1990;170:32-8.
24. Offner F, Philippe J, Vogelaers D, Colardyn F, Baele G, Baudrihaye M, et al. Serum tumor necrosis factor levels in patients with infectious disease and septic shock. J Lab Clin Med 1990;116:100-5.
25. Fraunberger P, Walli AK, Seidel D. Cytokine analysis. What is feasible - what is useful? Internist (Berl) 2001;42:35-46.
26. Spinas GA, Keller U, Brockhaus M. Release of soluble receptors for tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in relation to circulating TNF during experimental endotoxinemia. J Clin Invest 1992;90:533-6.
27. Neilson D, Kavanagh JP, Rao PN. Kinetics of circulating TNF-alpha and TNF soluble receptors following surgery in a clinical model of sepsis. Cytokine 1996;8:938-43.
28. Pilz G, Fraunberger P, Appel R, Kreuzer E, Werdan K, Walli A, et al. Early prediction of outcome in score-identified, postcardiac surgical patients at high risk for sepsis, using soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor-p55 concentrations. Crit Care Med 1996;24:596-600.
29. Fraunberger P, Nagel D, Walli AK, Seidel D. Serum cholesterol and mortality in patients with multiple organ failure. Crit Care Med 2000;28:3574-5.
30. Van-Zee KJ, Kohno T, Fischer E, Rock CS, Moldawer LL, Lowry SF. Tumor necrosis factor soluble receptors circulate during experimental and clinical inflammation and can protect against excessive tumor necrosis factor alpha in vitro and in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1992;89:4845-9.
31. Mohler KM, Torrance DS, Smith CA, Goodwin RG, Stremler KE, Fung VP, et al. Soluble tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors are effective therapeutic agents in lethal endotoxemia and function simultaneously as both TNF carriers and TNF antagonists. J Immunol 1993;151:1548-61.
32. Fisher CJ Jr, Agosti JM, Opal SM, Lowry SF, Balk RA, Sadoff JC, et al. Treatment of septic shock with the tumor necrosis factor receptor:Fc fusion protein. The Soluble TNF Receptor Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1697-702.
33. Dinarello CA. Interleukin-1beta. Crit Care Med 2005;33:S460-2.
34. Okusawa S, Gelfand JA, Ikejima T, Connolly RJ, Dinarello CA. Interleukin 1 induces a shock-like state in rabbits. Synergism with tumor necrosis factor and the effect of cyclooxygenase inhibition. J Clin Invest 1988;81:1162-72.
35. Gardlund B, Sjolin J, Nilsson A, Roll M, Wickerts CJ, Wretlind B. Plasma levels of cytokines in primary septic shock in humans: correlation with disease severity. J Infect Dis 1995;172:296-301.
36. Le JM, Vilcek J. Interleukin 6: a multifunctional cytokine regulating immune reactions and the acute phase protein response. Lab Invest 1989;61:588-602.
37. Rosenbloom AJ, Pinsky MR, Bryant JL, Shin A, Tran T, Whiteside T. Leukocyte activation in the peripheral blood of patients with cirrhosis of the liver and SIRS. Correlation with serum interleukin-6 levels and organ dysfunction. J Am Med Assoc 1995;274:58-65.
38. Kishimoto T, Akira S, Narazaki M, Taga T. Interleukin-6 family of cytokines and gp130. Blood 1995;86:1243-54.
39. Fraunberger P, Wang Y, Holler E, Parhofer KG, Nagel D,Walli AK, et al. Prognostic value of interleukin 6, procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein levels in intensive care unit patients during first increase of fever. Shock 2006;26:10-2.
40. Kox WJ, Volk T, Kox SN, Volk HD. Immunomodulatory therapies in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2000;26:S124-8.
41. Oberholzer A, Oberholzer C, Moldawer LL. Sepsis syndromes: understanding the role of innate and acquired immunity. Shock 2001;16:83-96.
42. Munoz C, Carlet J, Fitting C, Misset B, Bleriot JP, Cavaillon JM. Dysregulation of in vitro cytokine production by monocytes during sepsis. J Clin Invest 1991;88:1747-54.
43. Faist E, Storck M, Hültner L, Redl H, Ertl W, Walz A, et al. Functional analysis of monocyte activity through synthesis patterns of proinflammatory cytokines and neopterin in patients in surgical intensive care. Surgery 1992;112:562-72.
44. Wolk K, Docke WD, von Baehr V, Volk HD, Sabat R. Impaired antigen presentation by human monocytes during endotoxin tolerance. Blood 2000;96:218-23.
45. Mokart D, Capo C, Blache JL, Delpero JR, Houvenaeghel G, Martin C, et al. Early postoperative compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome is associated with septic complications after major surgical trauma in patients with cancer. Br J Surg 2002;89:1450-6.
46. Angele MK, Faist E. Clinical review: immunodepression in the surgical patient and increased susceptibility to infection. Crit Care 2002;6:298-305.
47. Randow F, Syrbe U, Meisel C, Krausch D, Zuckermann H, Platzer C, et al. Mechanism of endotoxin desensitization: involvement of interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor beta. J Exp Med 1995;181:1887-92.
48. Tsunawaki S, Sporn M, Ding A, Nathan C. Deactivation of macrophages by transforming growth factor-beta. Nature 1988;334:260-2.
49. Ayala A, Meldrum DR, Perrin MM, Chaudry IH. The release of transforming growth factor-beta following haemorrhage: its role as a mediator of host immunosuppression. Immunology 1993;79:479-84.
50. Hamon G, Mulloy RH, Chen G, Chow R, Birkenmaier C, Horn JK. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 lowers the CD14 content of monocytes. J Surg Res 1994;57:574-8.
51. Perrella MA, Hsieh CM, Lee WS, Shieh S, Tsai JC, Patterson C, et al. Arrest of endotoxin-induced hypotension by transforming growth factor beta1. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1996;93:2054-9.
52. Moore KW, de Waal Malefyt R, Coffman RL, O'Garra A. Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor. Annu Rev Immunol 2001;19:683-765.
53. Schottelius AJ, Mayo MW, Sartor RB, Baldwin AS Jr. Interleukin-10 signaling blocks inhibitor of kappaB kinase activity and nuclear factor kappaB DNA binding. J Biol Chem 1999;274:31868-74.
54. de Waal Malefyt R, Haanen J, Spits H, Roncarolo MG, te Velde A, Figdor C, et al. Interleukin 10 (IL-10) and viral IL-10 strongly reduce antigen-specific human T cell proliferation by diminishing the antigen-presenting capacity of monocytes via downregulation of class II major histocompatibility complex expression. J Exp Med 1991;174:915-24.
55. Marchant A, Bruyns C, Vandenabeele P, Ducarme M, Gerard C, Delvaux A, et al. Interleukin-10 controls interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor production during experimental endotoxemia. Eur J Immunol 1994;24:1167-71.
56. Standiford TJ, Strieter RM, Lukacs NW, Kunkel SL. Neutralization of IL-10 increases lethality in endotoxemia. Cooperative effects of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol 1995;155:2222-9.
57. Berg DJ, Kuhn R, Rajewsky K, Muller W, Menon S, Davidson N, et al. Interleukin-10 is a central regulator of the response to LPS in murine models of endotoxic shock and the Shwartzman reaction but not endotoxin tolerance. J Clin Invest 1995;96:2339-47.
58. Sewnath ME, Olszyna DP, Birjmohun R, ten Kate FJ, Gouma DJ, van Der Poll T. IL-10-deficient mice demonstrate multiple organ failure and increased mortality during Escherichia coli peritonitis despite an accelerated bacterial clearance. J Immunol 2001;166:6323-31.
59. Oberholzer A, Oberholzer C, Moldawer LL. Interleukin-10: a complex role in the pathogenesis of sepsis syndromes and its potential as an anti-inflammatory drug. Crit Care Med 2002;30:S58-63.
60. Lehmann AK, Halstensen A, Sornes S, Rokke O, Waage A. High levels of interleukin 10 in serum are associated with fatality in meningococcal disease. Infect Immun 1995;63:2109-12.
61. Leff JA, Wilke CP, Furman MJ, Bodman ME, Repine JE. Interleukin-1 pretreatment prevents interleukin-1-induced lung leak in rats. Am J Physiol 1995;268:L12-6.
62. Kuster H, Weiss M, Willeitner AE, Detlefsen S, Jeremias I, Zbojan J, et al. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and interleukin-6 for early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis 2 days before clinical manifestation. Lancet 1998;352:1271-7.
63. Tracey KJ, Fong Y, Hesse DG, Manogue KR, Lee AT, Kuo GC, et al. Anti-cachectin/TNF monoclonal antibodies prevent septic shock during lethal bacteraemia. Nature 1987;330:662-4.
64. Fischer E, Marano MA, Van Zee KJ, Rock CS, Hawes AS, Thompson WA, et al. Interleukin-1 receptor blockade improves survival and hemodynamic performance in Escherichia coli septic shock, but fails to alter host responses to sublethal endotoxemia. J Clin Invest 1992;89:1551-7.
65. Hinshaw LB, Tekamp-Olson P, Chang AC, Lee PA, Taylor FB, Murray CK, et al. Survival of primates in LD100 septic shock following therapy with antibody to tumor necrosis factor (TNF alpha). Circ Shock 1990;30:279-92.
66. Hinshaw LB, Emerson TE Jr, Taylor FB Jr, Chang AC, Duerr M, Peer GT, et al. Lethal Staphylococcus aureus-induced shock in primates: prevention of death with anti-TNF antibody. J Trauma 1992;33:568-73.
67. Beutler B, Milsark IW, Cerami AC. Passive immunization against cachectin/tumor necrosis factor protects mice from lethal effect of endotoxin. Science 1985;229:869-71.
68. Fisher CJ Jr, Opal SM, Dhainaut JF, Stephens S, Zimmerman JL, Nightingale P, et al. Influence of an anti-tumor necrosis factor monoclonal antibody on cytokine levels in patients with sepsis. The CB0006 Sepsis Syndrome Study Group. Crit Care Med 1993;21:318-27.
69. Cohen J, Carlet J. INTERSEPT: an international, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of monoclonal antibody to human tumor necrosis factor-alpha in patients with sepsis. International Sepsis Trial Study Group. Crit Care Med 1996;24:1431-40.
70. Abraham E, Wunderink R, Silverman H, Perl TM, Nasraway S, Levy H, et al. Efficacy and safety of monoclonal antibody to human tumor necrosis factor alpha in patients with sepsis syndrome. A randomized, controlled, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. TNF-alpha MAb Sepsis Study Group. J Am Med Assoc 1995;273:934-41.
71. Abraham E, Anzueto A, Gutierrez G, Tessler S, San Pedro G, Wunderink R, et al. Double-blind randomised controlled trial of monoclonal antibody to human tumour necrosis factor in treatment of septic shock. NORASEPT II Study Group. Lancet 1998;351:929-33.
72. Reinhart K, Menges T, Gardlund B, Harm Zwaveling J, Smithes M, Vincent JL, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the anti-tumor necrosis factor antibody fragment afelimomab in hyperinflammatory response during severe sepsis: The RAMSES Study. Crit Care Med 2001;29:765-9.
73. Abraham E, Glauser MP, Butler T, Garbino J, Gelmont D, Laterre PF, et al. p55 Tumor necrosis factor receptor fusion protein in the treatment of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. A randomized controlled multicenter trial. Ro 45-2081 Study Group. J Am Med Assoc 1997;277:1531-8.
74. Abraham E, Laterre PF, Garbino J, Pingleton S, Butler T, Dugernier T, et al. Lenercept Study Group. Lenercept (p55 tumor necrosis factor receptor fusion protein) in severe sepsis and early septic shock: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter phase III trial with 1,342 patients. Crit Care Med 2001;29:503-10.
75. Fisher CJ Jr, Dhainaut JF, Opal SM, Pribble JP, Balk RA, Slotman GJ, et al. Recombinant human interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of patients with sepsis syndrome. Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Phase III rhIL-1ra Sepsis Syndrome Study Group. J Am Med Assoc 1994;271:1836-43.
76. Fisher CJ Jr, Opal SM, Lowry SF, Sadoff JC, LaBrecque JF, Donovan HC, et al. Role of interleukin-1 and the therapeutic potential of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in sepsis. Circ Shock 1994;44:1-8.
77. Fisher CJ Jr, Slotman GJ, Opal SM, Pribble JP, Bone RC, Emmanuel G, et al. IL-1RA Sepsis Syndrome Study Group. Initial evaluation of human recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: a randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Crit Care Med 1994;22:12-21.
78. Opal SM, Fisher CJ Jr, Dhainaut JF, Vincent JL, Brase R, Lowry SF, et al. Confirmatory interleukin-1 receptor antagonist trial in severe sepsis: a phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. The Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist Sepsis Investigator Group. Crit Care Med 1997;25:1115-24.
79. Minnich DJ, Moldawer LL. Anti-cytokine and anti-inflammatory therapies for the treatment of severe sepsis: progress and pitfalls. Proc Nutr Soc 2004;63:437-41.
80. Vincent JL, Sun Q, Dubois MJ. Clinical trials of immunomodulatory therapies in severe sepsis and septic shock. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:1084-93.
81. Zeni F, Freeman B, Natanson C. Anti-inflammatory therapies to treat sepsis and septic shock: a reassessment. Crit Care Med 1997;25:1095-100.
82. Eichacker PQ, Parent C, Kalil A, Esposito C, Cui X, Banks SM, et al. Risk and the efficacy of antiinflammatory agents: retrospective and confirmatory studies of sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1197-205.
83. Schinkel C, Licht K, Zedler S, Schinkel S, Fuchs D, Faist E. Perioperative treatment with human recombinant interferon-gamma: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Shock 2001;16:329-33.
84. Agnes A, Zippel K, Zuckermann H, Docke WD, Volk HD, Muller JM. Immune stimulation with G-CSF (Neupogen) in septic patients with immuneparalysis. Langenbecks Arch Chir Suppl Kongressbd 1998;115:1077-9.
85. Williams MA, Withington S, Newland AC, Kelsey SM. Monocyte anergy in septic shock is associated with a predilection to apoptosis and is reversed by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor ex vivo. J Infect Dis 1998;178:1421-33.
86. Docke WD, Randow F, Syrbe U, Krausch D, Asadullah K, Reinke P, et al. Monocyte deactivation in septic patients: restoration by IFN-gamma treatment. Nat Med 1997;3:678-81.
87. van Dissel JT, van Langevelde P, Westendorp RG, Kwappenberg K, Frolich M. Anti-inflammatory cytokine profile and mortality in febrile patients. Lancet 1998;351:950-3.
88. Gogos CA, Drosou E, Bassaris HP, Skoutelis A. Pro- versus anti-inflammatory cytokine profile in patients with severe sepsis: a marker for prognosis and future therapeutic options. J Infect Dis 2000;181:176-80.
89. Carrol ED, Thomson AP, Jones AP, Jeffers G, Hart CA. A predominantly anti-inflammatory cytokine profile is associated with disease severity in meningococcal sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2005;31:1415-9.
90. Siebenlist U, Franzoso G, Brown K. Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annu Rev Cell Biol 1994;10:405-55.
91. Ghosh S. Regulation of inducible gene expression by the transcription factor NF-kappaB. Immunol Res 1999;19:183-9.
92. Christman JW, Lancaster LH, Blackwell TS. Nuclear factor kappa B: a pivotal role in the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and new target for therapy. Intensive Care Med 1998;24:1131-8.
93. Schmitz ML, Baeuerle PA. Multi-step activation of NF-kappa B/Rel transcription factors. Immunobiology 1995;193:116-27.
94. Bohrer H, Qiu F, Zimmermann T, Zhang Y, Jllmer T, Mannel D, et al. Role of NFkappaB in the mortality of sepsis. J Clin Invest 1997;100:972-85.
95. Schlaak JF, Barreiros AP, Pettersson S, Schirmacher P, Meyer Zum Buschenfelde KH, Neurath MF. Antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotides to the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB abrogate fulminant septic shock induced by S. typhimurium in mice. Scand J Immunol 2001;54:396-403.
96. Fukuma K, Marubayashi S, Okada K, Yamada K, Kimura A, Dohi K. Effect of lazaroid U-74389G and methylprednisolone on endotoxin-induced shock in mice. Surgery 1999;125:421-30.
97. Assicot M, Gendrel D, Carsin H, Raymond J, Guilbaud J, Bohuon C. High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with sepsis and infection. Lancet 1993;341:515-8.
98. Nijsten MW, Olinga P, The TH, de Vries EG, Koops HS, Groothuis GM, et al. Procalcitonin behaves as a fast responding acute phase protein in vivo and in vitro. Crit Care Med 2000;28:458-61.
99. Oberhoffer M, Stonans I, Russwurm S, Stonane E, Vogelsang H, Junker U, et al. Procalcitonin expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and its modulation by lipopolysaccharides and sepsis-related cytokines in vitro. J Lab Clin Med 1999;134:49-55.
100. Dandona P, Nix D, Wilson MF, Aljada A, Love J, Assicot M, et al. Procalcitonin increase after endotoxin injection in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:1605-8.
101. Oberhoffer M, Vogelsang H, Russwurm S, Hartung T, Reinhart K. Outcome prediction by traditional and new markers of inflammation in patients with sepsis. Clin Chem Lab Med 1999;37:363-8.
102. Meisner M, Tschaikowsky K, Palmaers T, Schmidt J. Comparison of procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) plasma concentrations at different SOFA scores during the course of sepsis and MODS. Crit Care 1999;3:45-50.
103. Muller B, Becker KL, Schachinger H, Rickenbacher PR, Huber PR, Zimmerli W, et al. Calcitonin precursors are reliable markers of sepsis in a medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2000;28:977-83.
104. de Werra I, Jaccard C, Corradin SB, Chiolero R, Yersin B, Gallati H, et al. Cytokines, nitrite/nitrate, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors, and procalcitonin concentrations: comparisons in patients with septic shock, cardiogenic shock, and bacterial pneumonia. Crit Care Med 1997;25:607-13.
105. Carrol ED, Thomson AP, Hart CA. Procalcitonin as a marker of sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002;20:1-9.
106. Brunkhorst FM, Karzai W, Reinhart K. Diagnostic approach to sepsis-state of the art. Zentralbl Chir 2002;127:165-73.
107. Tang BM, Eslick GD, Craig JC, McLean AS. Accuracy of procalcitonin for sepsis diagnosis in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2007;7:210-7.
108. Luzzani A, Polati E, Dorizzi R, Rungatscher A, Pavan R, Merlini A. Comparison of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as markers of sepsis. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1737-41.
109. Castelli GP, Pognani C, Meisner M, Stuani A, Bellomi D, Sgarbi L. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein during systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis and organ dysfunction. Crit Care 2004;8:R234-42.
110. Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, Saint-Louis P, Lacroix J. Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39:206-17.
111. Uzzan B, Cohen R, Nicolas P, Cucherat M, Perret GY. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis in critically ill adults and after surgery or trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2006;34:1996-2003.
112. Marc E, Menager C, Moulin F, Stos B, Chalumeau M, Guerin S, et al. Procalcitonin and viral meningitis: reduction of unnecessary antibiotics by measurement during an outbreak. Arch Pediatr 2002;9:358-64.
113. Christ-Crain M, Jaccard-Stolz D, Bingisser R, Gencay MM, Huber PR, Tamm M, et al. Effect of procalcitonin-guided treatment on antibiotic use and outcome in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster-randomised, single-blinded intervention trial. Lancet 2004;363:600-7.
114. Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R, Muller C, Miedinger D, Huber PR, et al. Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:84-93.
115. Stolz D, Christ-Crain M, Bingisser R, Leuppi J, Miedinger D, Muller C, et al. Antibiotic treatment of exacerbations of COPD: a randomized, controlled trial comparing procalcitonin-guidance with standard therapy. Chest 2007;131:9-19.
116. Herrmann W, Ecker D, Quast S, Klieden M, Rose S, Marzi I. Comparison of procalcitonin, sCD14 and interleukin-6 values in septic patients. Clin Chem Lab Med 2000;38:41-6.
117. Luyt CE, Guerin V, Combes A, Trouillet JL, Ayed SB, Bernard M, et al. Procalcitonin kinetics as a prognostic marker of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171:48-53.
118. Wunder C, Eichelbronner O, Roewer N. Are IL-6, IL-10 and PCT plasma concentrations reliable for outcome prediction in severe sepsis? A comparison with APACHE III and SAPS II. Inflamm Res 2004;53:158-63.
119. Meisner M, Adina H, Schmidt J. Correlation of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein to inflammation, complications, and outcome during the intensive care unit course of multiple-trauma patients. Crit Care 2006;10:R1.
120. Boussekey N, Leroy O, Alfandari S, Devos P, Georges H, Guery B. Procalcitonin kinetics in the prognosis of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:469-72.
121. von Lilienfeld-Toal M, Schneider A, Orlopp K, Hahn-Ast C, Glasmacher A, Stuber F. Change of procalcitonin predicts clinical outcome of febrile episodes in patients with hematological malignancies. Support Care Cancer 2006;14:1241-5.
122. Rau BM, Frigerio I, Buchler MW, Wegscheider K, Bassi C, Puolakkainen PA, et al. Evaluation of procalcitonin for predicting septic multiorgan failure and overall prognosis in secondary peritonitis: a prospective, international multicenter study. Arch Surg 2007;142:134-42.
123. Novotny A, Emmanuel K, Matevossian E, Kriner M, Ulm K, Bartels H, et al. Use of procalcitonin for early prediction of lethal outcome of postoperative sepsis. Am J Surg 2007;194:35-9.