Angiotensin II and the cardiac complications of diabetes mellitus

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 13, Issue 26, 2007, Pages 2721-2729

  Connelly, K A ^a   Boyle, A J ^a   Kelly, D J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

ACE inhibitor; Aldosterone; Angiotensin II; Angiotensin receptor blocker; Congestive cardiac failure; Hypertension; RAS; TGF 1

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ALDOSTERONE ANTAGONIST; ALISKIREN; ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANGIOTENSIN II; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ATENOLOL; CAPTOPRIL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENALAPRIL; FATTY ACID DERIVATIVE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; IRBESARTAN; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; NATEGLINIDE; PERINDOPRIL; PLACEBO; PROTEIN KINASE C BETA INHIBITOR; RAMIPRIL; RENIN INHIBITOR; ROSIGLITAZONE; RUBOXISTAURIN; VALSARTAN;

CARDIOMYOPATHY; CELL DAMAGE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; COUGHING; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHY; DIABETIC MICROANGIOPATHY; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DIABETIC NEUROPATHY; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG MECHANISM; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEART FAILURE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART VENTRICLE REMODELING; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; MONOTHERAPY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEPHROTOXICITY; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW;

ANGIOTENSIN II; ANIMALS; DIABETES COMPLICATIONS; DIABETES MELLITUS; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; UP-REGULATION;

EID: 34548726326     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138161207781662984     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Lim HS, MacFadyen RJ, Lip GY. Diabetes mellitus, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and the heart. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 1737-48.
2. Krum H, Gilbert RE. Demographics and concomitant disorders in heart failure. Lancet 2003; 362: 147-58.
3. McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, Kannel WB. The natural history of congestive heart failure: The Framingham study. N Engl J Med 1971; 285: 1441-6.
4. Kannel WB, Hjortland M, Castelli WP. Role of diabetes in congestive heart failure: The Framingham study. Am J Cardiol 1974; 34: 29-34.
5. Levy D, Kenchaiah S, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Kupka MJ, Ho KK, et al. Long-term trends in the incidence of and survival with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 1397-402.
6. Young JB. The global epidemiology of heart failure. Med Clin North Am 2004; 88: 1135-43, ix.
7. Association AH. Congestive heart failure. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics, 2005 Update 2005: 26-7.
8. The SOLVD Investigators. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 293-302.
9. Dzau VJ, Re R. Tissue angiotensin system in cardiovascular medicine. A paradigm shift? Circulation 1994; 89: 493-8.
10. Thomas WG, Brandenburger Y, Autelitano DJ, Pham T, Qian H, Hannan RD. Adenoviral-directed expression of the type 1A angiotensin receptor promotes cardiomyocyte hypertrophy via transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. Circ Res 2002; 90: 135-42.
11. Widdop RE, Matrougui K, Levy BI, Henrion D. AT2 receptor-mediated relaxation is preserved after long-term ATI receptor blockade. Hypertension 2002; 40: 516-20.
12. Batenburg WW, Garrelds IM, Bernasconi CC, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, van Kats JP, Saxena PR, et al. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor-mediated vasodilation in human coronary microarteries. Circulation 2004; 109: 2296-301.
13. Brown NJ, Vaughan DE. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Circulation 1998; 97: 1411-20.
14. Hamilton TA, Handa RK, Harding JW, Wright JW. A role for the angiotensin IV/AT4 system in mediating natriuresis in the rat. Peptides 2001; 22: 935-44.
15. Caron AZ, Arguin G, Guillemette G. Angiotensin IV interacts with a juxtamembrane site on AT(4)/IRAP suggesting an allosteric mechanism of enzyme modulation. Regul Pept 2003; 113: 9-15.
16. Keller SR. Role of the insulin-regulated aminopeptidase IRAP in insulin action and diabetes. Biol Pharm Bull 2004; 27: 761-4.
17. Crackower MA, Sarao R, Oudit GY, Yagil C, Kozieradzki I, Scanga SE, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function. Nature 2002; 417: 822-8.
18. Sun Y, Zhang J, Zhang JQ, Weber KT. Renin Expression at Sites of Repair in the Infarcted Rat Heart* 1. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2001; 33: 995-1003.
19. van Kats JP, Danser AHJ, van Meegen JR, Sassen LMA, Verdouw PD, Schalekamp MADH. Angiotensin production by the heart: A quantitative study in pigs with the use of radiolabeled angiotensin infusions. Circulation 1998; 98: 73-81.
20. Katwaa LC, Tyagia SC, Campbella SE, Leea SJ, Cicilab GT, Weber KT. Valvular interstitial cells express angiotensinogen and cathepsin D, and generate angiotensin peptides. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 1996; 28: 807-21.
21. Laurent GJ. Dynamic state of collagen: Pathways of collagen degradation in vivo and their possible role in regulation of collagen mass. Am J Physiol 1987; 252: C1-C9.
22. Silvestre J-S, Robert V, Heymes C, Aupetit-Faisant B, Mouas C, Moalic J-M, et al. Myocardial production of aldosterone and corticosterone in the rat: Physiological regulation. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 4883-91.
23. Mizuno Y, Yoshimura M, Yasue H, Sakamoto T, Ogawa H, Kugiyama K, et al. Aldosterone Production Is Activated in Failing Ventricle in Humans. Circulation 2001; 103: 72-7.
24. Takeda Y. Pleiotropic actions of aldosterone and the effects of eplerenone, a selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist. Hypertens Res 2004; 27: 781-9.
25. Young M, Head G, Funder J. Determinants of cardiac fibrosis in experimental hypermineralocorticoid states. Am J Physiol 1995; 269: E657-62.
26. Takeda Y, Yoneda T, Demura M, Usukura M, Mabuchi H. Calcineurin inhibition attenuates mineralocorticoid-induced cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation 2002; 105: 677-9.
27. Robert V, Heymes C, Silvestre JS, Sabri A, Swynghedauw B, Delcayre C. Angiotensin AT1 receptor subtype as a cardiac target of aldosterone: role in aldosterone-salt-induced fibrosis. Hypertension 1999; 33: 981-6.
28. Rubler S, Dlugash J, Yuceoglu YZ, Kumral T, Branwood AW, Grishman A. New type of cardiomyopathy associated with diabetic glomerulosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 1972; 30: 595-602.
29. Bell DS. Diabetic cardiomyopathy. A unique entity or a complication of coronary artery disease? Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 708-14.
30. Fang ZY, Prins JB, Marwick TH. Diabetic cardiomyopathy: Evidence, mechanisms, and therapeutic implications. Endocr Rev 2004; 25: 543-67
31. Solang L, Malmberg K, Ryden L. Diabetes mellitus and congestive heart failure. Further knowledge needed. Eur Heart J 1999; 20: 789-95.
32. Frustaci A, Kajstura J, Chimenti C, Jakoniuk I, Leri A, Maseri A, et al. Myocardial cell death in human diabetes. Circ Res 2000; 87: 1123-32.
33. Fiordaliso F, Li B, Latini R, Sonnenblick EH, Anversa P, Leri A, et al. Myocyte death in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats in angiotensin II- dependent. Lab Invest 2000; 80: 513-27.
34. Sechi LA, Griffin CA, Schambelan M. The cardiac renin-angiotensin system in STZ-induced diabetes. Diabetes 1994; 43: 1180-4.
35. Lijnen PJ, Petrov VV, Fagard RH. Induction of cardiac fibrosis by angiotensin II. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 2000; 22: 709-23.
36. Leri A, Claudio PP, Li Q, Wang X, Reiss K, Wang S, et al. Stretch-mediated release of angiotensin II induces myocyte apoptosis by activating p53 that enhances the local renin-angiotensin system and decreases the Bcl-2-to-Bax protein ratio in the cell. J Clin Invest 1998; 101: 1326-42.
37. Fiordaliso F, Leri A, Cesselli D, Limana F, Safai B, Nadal-Ginard B, et al. Hyperglycemia activates p53 and p53-regulated genes leading to myocyte cell-death. Diabetes 2001; 50: 2363-75.
38. Norby FL, Wold LE, Duan J, Hintz KK, Ren J. IGF-I attenuates diabetes-induced cardiac contractile dysfunction in ventricular myocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002; 283: E658-66.
39. Martin J, Kelly DJ, Mifsud SA, Zhang Y, Cox AJ, See F, et al. Tranilast attenuates cardiac matrix deposition in experimental diabetes: role of transforming growth factor-[beta]. Cardiovasc Res 20005; 65: 694-701.
40. Webster MW, Scott RS. What cardiologists need to know about diabetes. Lancet 1997; 350(Suppl 1): SI23-8.
41. Dzau VJ. Theodore Cooper Lecture: Tissue angiotensin and pathobiology of vascular disease: A unifying hypothesis. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1047-52.
42. Balletshofer BM, Rittig K, Enderle MD, Volk A, Maerker E, Jacob S, et al. Endothelial dysfunction is detectable in young normotensive first-degree relatives of subjects with type 2 diabetes in association with insulin resistance. Circulation 2000; 101: 1780-4.
43. Mombouli JV. ACE inhibition, endothelial function and coronary artery lesions. Role of kinins and nitric oxide. Drugs 1997; 54 (Suppl 5): 12-22.
44. Berry C, Hamilton CA, Brosnan MJ, Magill FG, Berg GA, McMurray JJ, et al. Investigation into the sources of superoxide in human blood vessels: Angiotensin II increases superoxide production in human internal mammary arteries. Circulation 2000; 101: 2206-12.
45. Calles-Escandon J, Mirza SA, Sobel BE, Schneider DJ. Induction of hyperinsulinemia combined with hyperglycemia and hypertriglyceridemia increases plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 in blood in normal human subjects. Diabetes 1998; 47:290-3.
46. Lyon CJ, Hsueh WA. Effect of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Am J Med 2003; 115 (Suppl 8A): 62S-8S.
47. Candido R, Allen TJ, Lassila M, Cao Z, Thallas V, Cooper ME, et al. Irbesartan but not amlodipine suppresses diabetes-associated atherosclerosis. Circulation 2004; 109: 1536-42.
48. Candido R, Jandeleit-Dahm KA, Cao Z, Nesteroff SP, Burns WC, Twigg SM, et al. Prevention of accelerated atherosclerosis by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in diabetic apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 2002; 106: 246-53.
49. Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001; 285: 2486-97.
50. Gunasegaram S, Haworth RS, Hearse DJ, Avkiran M. Regulation of sarcolemmal Na(+)/H(+) exchanger activity by angiotensin II in adult rat ventricular myocytes: Opposing actions via AT(1) versus AT(2) receptors. Circ Res 1999; 85: 919-30.
51. Ballard C, Schaffer S. Stimulation of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger by phenylephrine, angiotensin II and endothelin 1. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1996; 28: 11-7.
52. Murriel CL, Mochly-Rosen D. Opposing roles of delta and epsilonPKC in cardiac ischemia and reperfusion: Targeting the apoptotic machinery. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003; 420: 246-54.
53. He Z, Way KJ, Arikawa E, Chou E, Opland DM, Clermont A, et al. Differential Regulation of Angiotensin II-induced Expression of Connective Tissue Growth Factor by Protein Kinase C Isoforms in the Myocardium. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 15719-26.
54. Pastukh V, Wu S, Ricci C, Mozaffari M, Schaffer S. Reversal of hyperglycemic preconditioning by angiotensin II: Role of calcium transport. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 288: H1965-75.
55. Modesti A, Bertolozzi I, Gamberi T, Marchetta M, Lumachi C, Coppo M, et al. Hyperglycemia activates JAK2 signaling pathway in human failing myocytes via angiotensin II-mediated oxidative stress. Diabetes 2005; 54: 394-401.
56. Sun Y, Cleutjens JPM, Diaz-Arias AA, Weber KT. Cardiac angiotensin converting enzyme and myocardial fibrosis in the rat. Cardiovasc Res 1994; 28: 1423-32.
57. van Krimpen C, Smits JFM, Cleutjens JPM, Debets JJM, Schoemaker RG, Boudier HAJS, et al. DNA synthesis in the non-infarcted cardiac interstitium after left coronary artery ligation in the rat: Effects of captopril. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1991; 23: 1245-53.
58. Smits JFM, Van Krimpen C, Schoemaker RG, Cleutjens JPM, Daemen MJAP. Angiotensin II receptor blockade after myocardial infarction in rats: Effects on hemodynamics, myocardial DNA synthesis, and interstitial collagen content. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992; 20: 772-8.
59. Volders PGA, Willems IEMG, Cleutjens JPM, Aren J-W, Havenith MG, Daemen MJAP. Interstitial collagen is increased in the non-infarcted human myocardium after myocardial infarction. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1993; 25: 1317-23.
60. Wehrens XHT, Doevendans PA. Cardiac rupture complicating myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol 2004; 95: 285-92.
61. Weber KT. Extracellular matrix remodeling in heart failure: A role for de novo angiotensin II generation. Circulation 1997; 96: 4065-82.
62. Silvestre J-S, Heymes C, Oubenaissa A, Robert V, Aupetit-Faisant B, Carayon A, et al. Activation of cardiac aldosterone production in rat myocardial infarction. Effect of angiotensin II receptor blockade and role in cardiac fibrosis. Circulation 1999; 99: 2694-701.
63. Struthers AD, MacDonald TM. Review of aldosterone- and angiotensin II-induced target organ damage and prevention. Cardiovasc Res 2004; 61: 663-70.
64. Ullian ME, Schelling JR, Linas SL. Aldosterone enhances angiotensin II receptor binding and inositol phosphate responses. Hypertension 1992; 20: 67-73.
65. Fiebeler A, Schmidt F, Muller DN, Park JK, Dechend R, Bieringer M, et al. Mineralocorticoid receptor affects AP-1 and nuclear factor-kappab activation in angiotensin II-induced cardiac injury. Hypertension 2001; 37: 787-93.
66. Backlund T, Palojoki E, Saraste A, Eriksson A, Finckenberg P, Kyto V, et al. Sustained cardiomyocyte apoptosis and left ventricular remodelling after myocardial infarction in experimental diabetes. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 325-30.
67. Shiomi T, Tsutsui H, Ikeuchi M, Matsusaka H, Hayashidani S, Suematsu N, et al. Streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia exacerbates left ventricular remodeling and failure after experimental myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 165-72.
68. Weir MR, Dzau VJ. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: A specific target for hypertension management. Am J Hypertens 1999; 12: 205S-13S.
69. Laragh JH, Brenner BM Eds. Hypertension: Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. New York: Raven Press, 1990; 287-317.
70. Sowers JR, Epstein M, Frohlich ED. Diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease: An update. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1053-9.
71. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: Results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Lancet 2000; 355: 253-9.
72. Kjeldsen SE, Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Julius S, Aurup P, Edelman J, et al. Effects of losartan on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with isolated systolic hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy: A Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction (LIFE) substudy. JAMA 2002; 288: 1491-8.
73. Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Weber M, Brunner HR, Ekman S, Hansson L, et al. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: The VALUE randomised trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 2022-31.
74. Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, Held P, McMurray JJ, Michelson EL, et al. Effects of candesartan on mortality and morbidity in patients with chronic heart failure: The CHARM-Overall programme. Lancet 2003; 362: 759-66.
75. Garg R, Yusuf S. Overview of randomized trials of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure. Collaborative Group on ACE Inhibitor Trials. JAMA 1995; 273: 1450-6.
76. The CONSENSUS Trial Study Group. Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive heart failure: Results of the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS). N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1429-35.
77. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, Bates ER, Green LA, Hand M, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-Elevation myocardial infarction-executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1999 guidelines for the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction). J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44: 671-719.
78. Zuanetti G, Latini R, Maggioni AP, Santoro L, Franzosi MG. Influence of diabetes on mortality in acute myocardial infarction: Data from the GISSI-2 study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22: 1788-94.
79. Mak KH, Moliterno DJ, Granger CB, Miller DP, White HD, Wilcox RG, et al. Influence of diabetes mellitus on clinical outcome in the thrombolytic era of acute myocardial infarction. GUSTO-I Investigators. Global Utilization of Streptokinase and Tissue Plasminogen Activator for Occluded Coronary Arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30: 171-9.
80. Stone PH, Muller JE, Hartwell T, York BJ, Rutherford JD, Parker CB, et al. The effect of diabetes mellitus on prognosis and serial left ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction: contribution of both coronary disease and diastolic left ventricular dysfunction to the adverse prognosis. The MILIS Study Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989; 14: 49-57.
81. Packer M, Poole-Wilson PA, Armstrong PW, Cleland JG, Horowitz JD, Massie BM, et al. Comparative effects of low and high doses of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, lisinopril, on morbidity and mortality in chronic heart failure. ATLAS Study Group. Circulation 1999; 100: 2312-8.
82. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, Moye LA, Basta L, Brown EJ Jr, Cuddy TE, et al. Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Results of the survival and ventricular enlargment trial. The SAVE Investigators. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 669-77.
83. GISSI-3: Effects of lisinopril and transdermal glyceryl trinitrate singly and together on 6-week mortality and ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'infarto Miocardico. Lancet 1994; 343: 1115-212.
84. Rincon-Choles H, Kasinath BS, Gorin Y, Abboud HE. Angiotensin II and growth factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int Suppl 2002; 82: 8-11.
85. MacFadyen RJ, Lee AF, Morton JJ, Pringle SD, Struthers AD. How often are angiotensin II and aldosterone concentrations raised during chronic ACE inhibitor treatment in cardiac failure? Heart 1999; 82: 57-61.
86. Jorde UP, Vittorio T, Katz SD, Colombo PC, Latif F, Le Jemtel TH. Elevated plasma aldosterone levels despite complete inhibition of the vascular angiotensin-converting enzyme in chronic heart failure. Circulation 2002; 106: 1055-7.
87. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving HH, et al. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 861-9.
88. Haas SJ, Vos T, Gilbert RE, Krum H. Are beta-blockers as efficacious in patients with diabetes mellitus as in patients without diabetes mellitus who have chronic heart failure? A meta-analysis of large-scale clinical trials. Am Heart J 2003; 146: 848-53.
89. Cohn JN, Tognoni G. A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1667-75.
90. Yusuf S, Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, Held P, McMurray JJ, et al. Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction: The CHARM-Preserved Trial. Lancet 2003; 362: 777-81.
91. Dickstein K, Kjekshus J. Effects of losartan and captopril on mortality and morbidity in high-risk patients after acute myocardial infarction: the OPTIMAAL randomised trial. Optimal Trial in Myocardial Infarction with Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan. Lancet 2002; 360: 752-60.
92. Teo K, Yusuf S, Sleight P, Anderson C, Mookadam F, Ramos B, et al. Rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of 2 large, simple, randomized trials evaluating telmisartan, ramipril and their combination in high-risk patients: The Ongoing Telmisartan Alone and in Combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial/Telmisartan Randomized Assessment Study in ACE Intolerant Subjects with Cardiovascular Disease (ONTARGET/ TRANSCEND) trials. Am Heart J 2004; 148: 52-61.
93. Privratsky JR, Wold LE, Sowers JR, Quinn MT, Ren J. AT1 blockade prevents glucose-induced cardiac dysfunction in ventricular myocytes: role of the AT1 receptor and NADPH oxidase. Hypertension 2003; 42: 206-12.
94. Way KJ, Katai N, King GL. Protein kinase C and the development of diabetic vascular complications. Diabet Med 2001; 18: 945-59.
95. Candido R, Forbes JM, Thomas MC, Thallas V, Dean RG, Burns WC, et al. A breaker of advanced glycation end products attenuates diabetes-induced myocardial structural changes. Circ Res 2003; 92 785-92.
96. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ 1998; 317: 703-13.
97. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, Dahlof B, Elmfeldt D, Julius S, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: Principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. HOT Study Group. Lancet 1998; 351: 1755-62.
98. Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB, Pfeffer MA, Porush JG, Rouleau JL, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial of patients with type 2 diabetes and overt nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 542-9.
99. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 851-60.
100. Tikellis C, Wookey PJ, Candido R, Andrikopoulos S, Thomas MC, Cooper ME. Improved islet morphology after blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in the ZDF rat. Diabetes 2004; 53: 989-97.
101. Sharma AM. Is there a rationale for angiotensin blockade in the management of obesity hypertension? Hypertension 2004; 44: 12-9.
102. Janke J, Engeli S, Gorzelniak K, Luft FC, Sharma AM. Mature adipocytes inhibit in vitro differentiation of human preadipocytes via angiotensin type 1 receptors. Diabetes 2002; 51: 1699-707.
103. Sharma AM, Janke J, Gorzelniak K, Engeli S, Luft FC. Angiotensin blockade prevents type 2 diabetes by formation of fat cells. Hypertension 2002; 40: 609-11.
104. Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Holman R, Bosch J, Pogue J. Rationale, design and recruitment characteristics of a large, simple international trial of diabetes prevention: The DREAM trial. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 1519-27
105. He Z, Way KJ, Arikawa E, Chou E, Opland DM, Clermont A, et al. Differential regulation of angiotensin II-induced expression of connective tissue growth factor by protein kinase C isoforms in the myocardium. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 15719-26.
106. Bowling N, Walsh RA, Song U, Estridge T, Sandusky GE, Fouts RL, et al. Increased protein kinase C activity and expression of Ca2+-sensitive isoforms in the failing human heart. Circulation 1999; 99: 384-91.
107. Boyle AJ, Kelly DJ, Zhang Y, Cox AJ, Gow RM, Way K, et al. Inhibition of protein kinase C reduces left ventricular fibrosis and dysfunction following myocardial infarction. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2005; 39: 213-21.
108. Diep QN, Amiri F, Touyz RM, Cohn JS, Endemann D, Neves MF, et al. PPARalpha activator effects on Ang II-induced vascular oxidative stress and inflammation. Hypertension 2002; 40: 866-71.
109. Poynter ME, Daynes RA. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activation modulates cellular redox status, represses nuclear factor-kappaB signaling, and reduces inflammatory cytokine production in aging. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 32833-41.
110. Kelly DJ, Wilkinson-Berka JL, Gilbert RE. Renin inhibition. New potential for an old therapeutic target. Hypertension 2005; 46: 471-2.
111. Wood JM, Maibaum J, Rahuel J, Grutter MG, Cohen NC, Rasetti V, et al. Structure-based design of aliskiren, a novel orally effective renin inhibitor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003; 308: 698-705.
112. Nussberger J, Wuerzner G, Jensen C, Brunner HR. Angiotensin II suppression in humans by the orally active renin inhibitor Aliskiren (SPP100): Comparison with enalapril. Hypertension 2002; 39: E1-8.
113. Stanton A, Jensen C, Nussberger J, O'Brien E. Blood pressure lowering in essential hypertension with an oral renin inhibitor, aliskiren. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1137-43.
114. Gradman AH, Schmieder RE, Lins RL, Nussberger J, Chiang Y, Bedigian MP. Aliskiren, a novel orally effective renin inhibitor, provides dose-dependent antihypertensive efficacy and placebo-like tolerability in hypertensive patients. Circulation 2005; 111: 1012-8.
115. Lim HS, MacFadyen RJ, Bakris G, Lip GY. The role of hyperglycaemia and the hypercoagulable state in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular events in diabetes mellitus: Implications for hypertension management. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12(13): 1567-79.
116. Shimada Y. Does Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor protect the heart in cardiac surgery? From laboratory to operating room: Clinical application of experimental study. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12(4): 517-26
117. Su JB. Kinins and cardiovascular diseases. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12(26): 3423-35.