Critical care sedation for neuroscience patients

Journal of the Neurological Sciences

Volumn 261, Issue 1-2, 2007, Pages 16-34

  Mirski, Marek A ^a   Hemstreet, Mitzi K ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

ICU; Pharmacokinetics; Sedation

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BUTYROPHENONE; CLONIDINE; DEXMEDETOMIDINE; DIAZEPAM; DROPERIDOL; FENTANYL; FLUMAZENIL; HALOPERIDOL; LORAZEPAM; MIDAZOLAM; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; MORPHINE; MORPHINE SULFATE; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; PENTOBARBITAL; PETHIDINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENOTHIAZINE; PROPOFOL; REMIFENTANIL; THIOPENTAL; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; VALPROIC ACID;

ACCREDITATION; ADRENAL SUPPRESSION; AGITATION; ANALGESIA; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ANURIA; ANXIETY; APNEA; ARTICLE; BRADYCARDIA; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN PERFUSION; BRONCHOSPASM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CONFUSION; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; COUGHING; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DELIRIUM; DIZZINESS; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; DYSPHORIA; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; FEVER; FLUSHING; GASTRIC DYSMOTILITY; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY DISORDER; HALLUCINATION; HEADACHE; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART MUSCLE CONTRACTILITY; HEART RATE; HICCUP; HUMAN; HYPERCAPNIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; INJECTION SITE PAIN; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; JAUNDICE; LARYNX SPASM; LOADING DRUG DOSE; LOW DRUG DOSE; METABOLIC ACIDOSIS; MUSCLE HYPOTONIA; MUSCLE RIGIDITY; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; MYOCLONUS; NAUSEA; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OLIGURIA; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT MONITORING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROLACTIN RELEASE; PRURITUS; PSYCHOSIS; QT PROLONGATION; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; REPEATED DRUG DOSE; RESPIRATION DEPRESSION; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SEIZURE THRESHOLD; SEPSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; TACHYCARDIA; TORSADE DES POINTES; TRANQUILIZING ACTIVITY; TREATMENT INDICATION; URTICARIA; VERTIGO; VOMITING; XEROSTOMIA;

ANTI-ANXIETY AGENTS; CRITICAL CARE; DELIRIUM; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; DRUG INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; MONITORING, PHYSIOLOGIC; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; PAIN;

EID: 34548174381     PISSN: 0022510X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2007.04.028     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Kress J.P., Pohlman A.S., O'Connor M.F., and Hall J.B. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 1471-1477
2. Hogarth D.K., and Hall J. Management of sedation in mechanically ventilated patients. Curr Opin Crit Care 10 1 (Feb 2004) 40-46
3. Mirski M.A., Muffelman B., Ulatowski J.A., and Hanley D.F. Sedation for the critically ill neurologic patient. Crit Care Med 23 (1995) 2038-2053
4. Gehi M.M., Rosenthal R.H., Fizette N.B., Crowe L.R., and Webb Jr. W.L. Psychiatric manifestations of hyponatremia. Psychosomatics 22 (1981) 739-743
5. Atchison J.W., Wachendorf J., Haddock D., Mysiw W.J., Gribble M., and Corrigan J.D. Hyponatremia-associated cognitive impairment in traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 7 (1993) 347-352
6. Aldemir M., Ozen S., Kara I.H., Sir A., and Bac B. Predisposing factors for delirium in the surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care 5 (2001) 265-270
7. Hawkes N.D., Thomas G.A., Jurewicz A., Williams O.M., Hillier C.E., McQueen I.M., et al. Non-hepatic hyperammonaemia: an important, potentially reversible cause of encephalopathy. Postgrad Med J 77 (2001) 717-722
8. Rao K.V., and Norenberg M.D. Cerebral energy metabolism in hepatic encephalopathy and hyperammonemia. Metab Brain Dis 16 (2001) 67-78
9. Winawer N. Postoperative delirium. Med Clin North Am 85 (2001) 1229-1239
10. O'Connel G.J., Campbell P.B., and Anath J.V. Amitriptyline: initial intolerance and subsequent psychosis. Can Med Assoc J 106 (1972) 115
11. Malinow K.L., and Dorsch C. Tricyclic precipitation of steroid psychosis. Psychiatr Med 2 (1984) 351-354
12. Preda A., MacLean R.W., Mazure C.M., and Bowers Jr. M.B. Antidepressant-associated mania and psychosis resulting in psychiatric admissions. J Clin Psychiatry 62 (2001) 30-33
13. Matsuura M. Epileptic psychoses and anticonvulsant drug treatment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67 (1999) 231-233
14. Besag F.M. Behavioural effects of the new anticonvulsants. Drug Safety 24 (2001) 513-536
15. Kossoff E.H., Bergey G.K., Freeman J.M., and Vining E.P. Levetiracetam psychosis in children with epilepsy. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 1611-1613
16. Sanders L.D., Whitehead C., Gildersleve C.D., Rosen M., and Robinson J.O. Interaction of H2-receptor antagonists and benzodiazepine sedation. A double-blind placebo-controlled investigation of the effects of cimetidine and ranitidine on recovery after intravenous midazolam. Anaesthesia 48 (1993) 286-292
17. Kim K.Y., McCartney J.R., Kaye W., Boland R.J., and Niaura R. The effect of cimetidine and ranitidine on cognitive function in postoperative cardiac surgery patients. Int J Psychiatry Med 26 (1996) 295-307
18. Schroeder J.A., Wolfe W.M., Thomas M.H., et al. The effect of intravenous ranitidine and metoclopramide on behavior, cognitive function, and affect. Anesth Analg 78 (1994) 359-364
19. Hall R.C., Popkin M.K., Stickney S.K., and Gardner E.R. Presentation of the steroid psychoses. J Nerv Ment Dis 167 (1979) 229-236
20. Patten S.B., and Neutel C.I. Corticosteroid-induced adverse psychiatric effects: incidence, diagnosis and management. Drug Safety 22 (2000) 111-122
21. Jacobson S. Psychotic reaction to penicillin. Am J Psychiatry 124 (1968) 999
22. Saker B.M., Musk A.W., Haywood E.F., and Hurst P.E. Reversible toxic psychosis after cephalexin. Med J Aust 1 (1973) 497-498
23. Cohen I.J., and Weitz R. Psychiatric complications with erythromycin. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 15 (1981) 388
24. Vincken W. Psychotic reaction to cefuroxime. Lancet 1 8383 (1984) 965
25. Sternbach H., and State R. Antibiotics: neuropsychiatric effects and psychotropic interactions. Harv Rev Psychiatry 5 (1997) 214-226
26. Gomez-Gil E., Garcia F., Pintor L., Martinez J.A., Mensa J., and de Pablo J. Clarithromycin-induced acute psychosis in peptic ulcer disease. Eur J Clin Microbiol Dis 18 (1999) 70-71
27. Prime K., and French P. Neuropsychiatric reaction induced by clarithromycin in a patient on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Sex Transm Infect 77 (2001) 297-298
28. Katz M.H. Effect of HIV treatment on cognition, behavior, and emotion. Psychiatr Clin North Am 17 (1994) 227-230
29. Ely E.W., Siegel M.D., and Inouye S. Delirium in the intensive care unit: an under-recognized syndrome of organ dysfunction. Semin Resp Crit Care Med 22 (2001) 115-126
30. Thomason J.W.W., Shintani A., Peterson J.F., et al. Intensive Care Delirium is an independent predictor of longer hospital stay: a prospective analysis of 261 non-ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 9 (2005) R375-R381
31. Buczko G.B. Sedation in critically ill patients: a review. Med Health RI 84 (2001) 321-323
32. Ramsay M.A., Savege T.M., Simpson B.R., et al. Controlled sedation with alphaxalone-alphadolone. Br Med J 2 (1974) 656-659
33. Riker R.R., Picard J.T., and Fraser G.L. Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 27 (1999) 1325-1329
34. Devlin J.W., Boleski G., Mlynarek M., et al. Motor Activity Assessment Scale: a valid and reasonable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 27 (1999) 1271-1275
35. De Wolf A.M., Fragen R.J., Avram M.J., et al. The pharmacokinetics of dexmedetomidine in volunteers with severe renal impairment. Anesth Analg 93 (2001) 1205-1209
36. Sessler C.N., Gosnell M.S., Grapp M.J., Brophy G.M., et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale. Validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 166 (2002) 1338-1344
37. DeJonghe B., Cook D., Griffith L., Appere-de-Vecchi C., Guyatt G., Theron V., et al. Adaptation to the Intensive Care Environment (ATICE): development and validation of a new sedation assessment instrument. Crit Care Med 31 (2003) 2344-2354
38. Avripas M.B., Smythe M.A., Carr A., Begle R.L., Johnson M.H., and Erb D.R. Development of an intensive care unit bedside sedation scale. Ann Pharmacother 35 (2001) 262-263
39. Watson-Kane-gill
40. Gutstein H.B., and Akil H. Opioid analgesics. In: Hardman J.G., and Limbird L.E. (Eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 10th ed. (2001), McGraw-Hill, New York 569-619
41. Paterson S.J., Robson L.E., and Kosterlitz H.W. Classification of opioid receptors. Br Med Bull 39 (1983) 31-36
42. Satoh M., Kubota A., Iwama T., et al. Comparison of analgesic potencies of mu, delta and kappa agonists locally applied to various CNS regions relevant to analgesia in rats. Life Sci 33 Suppl 1 (1983) 689-692
43. Altura B.T., Altura B.M., and Quirion R. Identification of benzomorphan-kappa opiate receptors in cerebral arteries which subserve relaxation. Br J Pharmacol 82 (1984) 459-466
44. Porreca F., Mosberg H.I., Hurst R., Hruby V.J., and Burks T.F. Roles of mu, delta and kappa opioid receptors in spinal and supraspinal mediation of gastrointestinal transit effects and hot-plate analgesia in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 230 (1984) 341-348
45. Pfeiffer A., Brantl V., Herz A., and Emrich H.M. Psychotomimesis mediated by kappa opiate receptors. Science 233 (1986) 774-776
46. Mansour A., Khatchaturian H., Lewis M.E., Akil H., and Watson S.J. Anatomy of CNS opioid receptors. Trends Neurosci 11 (1988) 308-314
47. Casy A.F. Opioid receptors and their ligands: recent developments. Adv Drug Res 18 (1989) 177-289
48. Glare P.A., and Walsh T.D. Clinical pharmacokinetics of morphine. Ther Drug Monit 13 (1991) 1-23
49. Morrison L.M., Payne M., and Drummond G.B. Comparison of speed of onset of analgesic effect of diamorphine and morphine. Br J Anaesth 66 (1991) 656-659
50. Nordberg G., Borg L., Hedner T., and Mellstrand T. CSF and plasma pharmacokinetics of intramuscular morphine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 27 (1985) 677-678
51. Goucke C.R., Hackett L.P., and Ilett K.F. Concentrations of morphine, morphine-6-glucuronide, and morphine-3-glucuronide in serum and cerebrospinal fluid following morphine administration to patients with morphine-resistant pain. Pain 56 (1994) 145-149
52. Brunk S.F., and Delle M. Morphine metabolism in man. Clin Pharmacol Ther 16 (1974) 51-57
53. Boerner U., Abbott S., and Roe R.L. The metabolism of morphine and heroin in man. Drug Metab Rev 4 (1975) 39-73
54. Pasternak G.W., Bodnar R.J., Clark J.A., and Inturrisi C.E. Morphine 6-glucuronide, a potent mu agonist. Life Sci 41 (1987) 2845-2849
55. Ball M., McQuay H.J., Moore R.A., Allen M.C., Fisher A., and Sear J. Renal failure and the use of morphine in intensive care. Lancet 1 8432 (1985) 784-786
56. Portenoy R.K., Foley K.M., Stulman J., et al. Plasma morphine and morphine-6-glucuronide during chronic morphine therapy for cancer pain: plasma profiles, steady-state concentrations and the consequences of renal failure. Pain 47 (1991) 13-19
57. Osborne R., Joel S., Trew D., and Slevin M. Morphine and metabolite behavior after different routes of administration: demonstration of the importance of the active metabolite morphine-6-glucuronide. Clin Pharmacol Ther 47 (1990) 12-19
58. Gourlay G.K. Sustained relief of chronic pain. Pharmacokinetics of sustained release morphine. Clin Pharmacokinet 35 (1998) 173-190
59. Streisand J.B., Busch M.A., Egan T.D., Smith B.G., Gay M., and Pace N.L. Dose proportionality and pharmacokinetics of oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate. Anesthesiology 88 (1998) 305-309
60. Gourlay G.K., Kowalski S.R., Plummer J.L., Cherry D.A., Gaukroger P., and Cousins M.J. The transdermal administration of fentanyl in the treatment of postoperative pain: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects. Pain 37 (1989) 193-202
61. Plezia P.M., Kramer T.H., Linford J., and Hameroff S.R. Transdermal fentanyl: pharmacokinetics and preliminary clinical evaluation. Pharmacotherapy 9 (1989) 2-9
62. Mather L.E. Clinical pharmacokinetics of fentanyl and its newer derivatives. Clin Pharmacokinet 8 (1983) 422-446
63. Bower S. Plasma protein binding of fentanyl. J Pharm Pharmacol 33 (1981) 507-514
64. Halliburton J.R. The pharmacokinetics of fentanyl, sufentanil and alfentanil: a comparative review. AANA J 56 (1988) 229-232
65. Goromaru T., Matsuura H., Yoshimura N., et al. Identification and quantitative determination of fentanyl metabolites in patients by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anesthesiology 61 (1984) 73-77
66. Corall I.M., Moore A.R., and Strunin L. Plasma concentrations of fentanyl in normal surgical patients and those with severe renal and hepatic disease. Br J Anaesth 52 (1980) [101P]
67. Joh I., Sila M., and Bastani B. Nondialyzability of fentanyl with high-efficiency and high-flux membranes (letter). Anesth Analg 86 (1998) 447
68. Glass P.S., Hardman D., Kamiyama Y., et al. Preliminary pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of an ultra-short-acting opioid: remifentanil (GI87084B). Anesth Analg 77 (1993) 1031-1040
69. Lemmens H.J. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships for opioids in balanced anesthesia. Clin Pharmacokinet 29 (1995) 231-242
70. Westmoreland C.L., Hoke J.F., Sebel P.S., Hug Jr. C.C., and Muir K.T. Pharmacokinetics of remifentanil (GI87084B) and its major metabolite (GI90291) in patients undergoing elective inpatient surgery. Anesthesiology 79 (1993) 893-903
71. Tipps L.B., Coplin W.M., Murry K.R., and Rhoney D.H. Safety and feasibility of continuous infusion of remifentanil in the neurosurgical intensive care unit. Neurosurgery 46 (2000) 596-602
72. Rao T.L.K., Mummaneni N., and El-Etr A.A. Convulsions: an unusual response to intravenous fentanyl administration. Anesth Analg 61 (1982) 1020-1021
73. Safwat A.M., and Daniel D. Grand mal seizure after fentanyl administration. Anesthesiology 59 (1983) 78
74. Hoien A.O. Another case of grand mal seizure after fentanyl administration. Anesthesiology 60 (1984) 387-388
75. Murkin J.M., Moldenhauer C.C., Hug C.C., et al. Absence of seizures during induction of anesthesia with high-dose fentanyl. Anesth Analg 63 (1984) 489-494
76. De Conno F., Caraceni A., Martini C., et al. Hyperalgesia and myoclonus with intrathecal infusion of high-dose morphine. Pain 47 (1991) 337-339
77. de Armendi A.J., Fahey M., and Ryan J.F. Morphine-induced myoclonic movements in a pediatric pain patient. Anesth Analg 77 (1993) 191-192
78. Flacke J.W., Flacke W.E., Bloor B.C., Van Etten A.P., and Kripke B.J. Histamine release by four narcotics: a double-blind study in humans. Anesth Analg 66 (1987) 723-730
79. Rosow C.E., Moss J., Philbin D.M., and Savarese J.J. Histamine release during morphine and fentanyl anesthesia. Anesthesiology 56 (1982) 93-96
80. Charney D.S., Mihic S.J., and Harris R.A. Hypnotics and sedatives. In: Hardman J.G., and Limbird L.E. (Eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 10th ed. (2001), McGraw-Hill, New York 399-427
81. Greenblatt D.J., Divoll M., Abernathy D.R., et al. Clinical Pharmacokinetics of the newer nezodiazepines. Clin Pharmacokinet 8 (1983) 233-252
82. Hoffman E.J., and Warren E.W. Flumazenil: a benzodiazepine antagonist. Clin Pharm 12 (1993) 641-656
83. Schulte am Esch J., and Kochs E. Midazolam and flumazenil in neuroanaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 92 (1990) 96-102
84. Sanchez-Izquierdo-Riera J.A., Caballero-Cubedo R.E., Perez-Vela J.L., Ambros-Checa A., Cantalapiedra-Santiago J.A., and Alted-Lopez E. Propofol versus midazolam: safety and efficacy for sedating the severe trauma patient. Anesth Analg 86 (1998) 1219-1224
85. Papazian L., Albanese J., Thirion X., Perrin G., Durbec O., and Martin C. Effect of bolus doses of midazolam on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in patients with severe head injury. Br J Anaesth 71 (1993) 267-271
86. Forster A., Juge O., and Morel D. Effects of midazolam on cerebral hemodynamics and cerebral vasomotor responsiveness to carbon dioxide. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 3 (1983) 246-249
87. Cock H.R., and Schapira A.H. A comparison of lorazepam and diazepam as initial therapy in convulsive status epilepticus. QJM 95 (2002) 225-231
88. Claassen J., Hirsch L.J., Emerson R.G., Bates J.E., Thompson T.B., and Mayer S.A. Continuous EEG monitoring and midazolam infusion for refractory nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Neurology 57 (2001) 1036-1042
89. Prasad A., Worrall B.B., Bertram E.H., and Bleck T.P. Propofol and midazolam in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 380-386
90. Evers A.S., and Crowder C.M. General anesthetics. In: Hardman J.G., and Limbird L.E. (Eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th ed. (2001), McGraw-Hill, New York 337-365
91. Russo H., and Bressolle F. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of thiopental. Clin Pharmacokinet 35 (1998) 95-134
92. Wermeling D.P., Blouin R.A., Porter W.H., Rapp R.P., and Tibbs P.A. Pentobarbital pharmacokinetics in patients with severe head injury. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 21 (1987) 459-463
93. Viswanathan C.T., Booker H.E., and Welling P.G. Pharmacokinetics of phenobarbital following single and repeated doses. J Clin Pharmacol 19 (1979) 282-289
94. Higuchi H., Adachi Y., Dahan A., et al. The interaction between propofol and clonidine for loss of consciousness. Anesth Analg 94 (2002) 886-891
95. Dobrydnjov I., Axelsson K., Samarutel J., and Holmstrom B. Postoperative pain relief following intrathecal bupivacaine combined with intrathecal or oral clonidine. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 46 (2002) 806-814
96. Iskandar H., Guillaume E., Dixmerias F., et al. The enhancement of sensory blockade by clonidine selectively added to mepivacaine after midhumeral block. Anesth Analg 93 (2001) 771-775
97. Venn R.M., and Grounds R.M. Comparison between dexmedetomidine and propofol for sedation in the intensive care unit: patient and clinician perceptions. Br J Anaesth 87 (2001) 684-690
98. Khan Z.P., Munday I.T., Jones R.M., Thornton C., Mant T.G., and Amin D. Effects of dexmedetomidine on isoflurane requirements in healthy volunteers. 1: Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions. Br J Anaesth 83 (1999) 372-380
99. Venn R.M., Bradshaw C.J., Spencer R., et al. Preliminary UK experience of dexmedetomidine, a novel agent for postoperative sedation in the intensive care unit. Anaesthesia 54 (1999) 1136-1142
100. Bhana N., Goa K.L., and McClellan K.J. Dexmedetomidine. Drugs 59 (2000) 263-268
101. Palmeri A., Sapienza S., Giuffrida R., et al. Modulatory action of noradrenergic system on spinal motoneurons in humans. Neuroreport 10 (1999) 1225-1229
102. Tulen J.H., van de Wetering B.J., Kruijk M.P., et al. Cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and sedative responses to four graded doses of clonidine in a placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry 32 (1992) 485-500
103. Fujimura A., Ebihara A., Shiga T., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new transdermal clonidine, M-5041T, in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol 33 (1993) 1192-1200
104. Talke P., Richardson C.A., Scheinin M., and Fisher D.M. Postoperative pharmacokinetics and sympatholytic effects of dexmedetomidine. Anesth Analg 85 (1997) 1136-1142
105. Maruyama K., Takeda S., Hongo T., Kobayashi N., and Ogawa R. The effect of oral clonidine premedication on lumbar cerebrospinal fluid pressure in humans. J Nippon Med Sch 67 (2000) 429-433
106. ter Minassian A., Beydon L., Decq P., and Bonnet F. Changes in cerebral hemodynamics after a single dose of clonidine in severely head-injured patients. Anesth Analg 84 (1997) 127-132
107. Favre J.B., Gardaz J.P., and Ravussin P. Effect of clonidine on ICP and on the hemodynamic responses to nociceptive stimuli in patients with brain tumors. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 7 (1995) 159-167
108. Takrouri M.S., Seraj M.A., Channa A.B., el-Dawlatly A.A., et al. Dexmedetomidine in intensive care unit: a study of hemodynamic changes. Middle East J Anesthesiol 16 (2002) 587-595
109. Simons P.J., Cockshott I.D., Douglas E.J., et al. Disposition in male volunteers of a subanaesthetic intravenous dose of an oil in water emulsion of 14C-propofol. Xenobiotica 18 (1988) 429-440
110. Cockshott I.D., Briggs L.P., Douglas E.J., et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol in female patients. Br J Anaesth 59 (1987) 1103-1110
111. Prielipp R.C., Wall M.H., Tobin J.R., Groban L., et al. Dexmedetomidine-induced sedation in volunteers decreases regional and global cerebral blood flow. Anesth Analg 95 (2002) 1052-1059
112. Albanese J., Martin C., Lacarelle B., et al. Pharmacokinetics of long-term propofol infusion used for sedation in ICU patients. Anesthesiology 73 (1990) 214-217
113. Talke P., Tong C., Lee H.W., Caldwell J., Eisenach J.C., and Richardson C.A. Effect of dexmedetomidine on lumbar cerebrospinal fluid pressure in humans. Anesth Analg 85 (1997) 358-364
114. Jacobi J., Fraser G.L., Coursin D.B., Riker R.R., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med 30 (2002) 119-141
115. Mantz J., and French Dexmedetomidine Phase III Study Group. Phase III study on Dexmedetomidine used for postoperative sedation of patients requiring mechanical ventilation for less than 24 hours: the French experience. Middle East J Anaesthesiol 16 (2002) 597-606
116. Venn R.M., Newman P.J., and Grounds R.M. A phase II study to evaluate the efficacy of Dexmedetomidine for sedation in the medical intensive care unit. Inten Care Med 29 (2003) 201-207
117. Vree T.B., de Grood P.-M.R.M., van Beem H.B.H., et al. Disposition and renal clearance of propofol and its glucuronide metabolites after a short intravenous infusion of propofol. Clin Drug Invest 13 (1997) 145-151
118. Bischoff P., Scharein E., Schmidt G.N., von Knobelsdorff G., Bromm B., and Esch J.S. Topography of clonidine-induced electroencephalographic changes evaluated by principal component analysis. Anesthesiology 92 (2000) 1545-1552
119. Yamadera H., Ferber G., Matejcek M., and Pokorny R. Electroencephalographic and psychometric assessment of the CNS effects of single doses of guanfacine hydrochloride (Estulic) and clonidine (Catapres). Neuropsychobiology 14 (1985) 97-107
120. Kirchberger K., Schmitt H., Hummel C., et al. Clonidine- and methohexital-induced epileptiform discharges detected by magnetoencephalography (MEG) in patients with localization-related epilepsies. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 1104-1112
121. Mirski M.A., Rossell L.A., McPherson R.W., and Traystman R.J. Dexmedetomidine decreases seizure threshold in a rat model of experimental generalized epilepsy. Anesthesiology 81 (1994) 1422-1428
122. Miyazaki Y., Adachi T., Kurata J., Utsumi J., Shichino T., and Segawa H. Dexmedetomidine reduces seizure threshold during enflurane anaesthesia in cats. Br J Anaesth 82 (1999) 935-937
123. Whittington R.A., Virag L., Vulliemoz Y., Cooper T.B., and Morishima H.O. Dexmedetomidine increases the cocaine seizure threshold in rats. Anesthesiology 97 (2002) 693-700
124. Karhuvaara S., Kallio A., Salonen M., Tuominen J., and Scheinin M. Rapid reversal of alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist effects by atipamezole in human volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 31 (1991) 160-165
125. Baldessarini R.J., and Tarazi F.I. Drugs and the treatment of psychiatric disorders: psychosis and mania. In: Hardman J.G., and Limbird L.E. (Eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 10th ed. (2001), McGraw-Hill, New York 485-520
126. Lehmann K.A., Van Peer A., Ikonomakis M., Gasparini R., and Heykants J. Pharmacokinetics of droperidol in surgical patients under different conditions of anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 61 (1988) 297-301
127. Lischke V., Behne M., Doelken P., Schledt U., Probst S., and Vettermann J. Droperidol causes a dose-dependent prolongation of the QT interval. Anesth Analg 79 (1994) 983-986
128. Misfeldt B.B., Jorgensen P.B., Spotoft H., and Ronde F. The effects of droperidol and fentanyl on intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in neurosurgical patients. Br J Anaesth 48 (1976) 963-968
129. Pisani F., Oteri G., Costa C., Di Raimondo G., and Di Perri R. Effects of psychotropic drugs on seizure threshold. Drug Safety 25 (2002) 91-110
130. Kang T.M. Propofol infusion syndrome in critically ill patients. Ann Pharmacother 36 (2002) 1453-1456
131. Hanna J.P., and Ramundo M.L. Rhabdomyolysis and hypoxia associated with prolonged propofol infusion in children. Neurology 50 (1998) 301-303
132. Vasile B., Rasulo F., Candiani A., and Latronico N. The pathophysiology of propofol infusion syndrome: a simple name for a complex syndrome. Int Care Med 29 (2003) 1417-1425
133. Alkire M.T., and Haier R.J. Correlating in vivo anaesthetic effects with ex vivo receptor density data supports a GABAergic mechanism of action for propofol, but not for isoflurane. Br J Anaesthesia 86 (2001) 618-626
134. A receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 421 (2001) 85-91
135. Tsuchiya H. Structure-specific membrane-fluidizing effect of propofol. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 28 (2001) 292-299
136. Swerdlow B.N., and Holley F.O. Intravenous anesthetic agents. Pharmaco-kinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships. Clin Pharmacokinet 6 (1981) 89-105
137. Simons P.J., Cockshott I.D., Douglas E.J., et al. Disposition in male volunteers of a subanesthetic intravenous dose of an oil in water emulsion of 14C-propofol. Xenobiotica 18 (1988) 429-440
138. Petersen K.D., Landsfeldt U., Cold G.E., et al. ICP is lower during propofol anaesthesia compared to isoflurane and sevoflurane. Acta Neurochir Suppl 81 (2002) 89-91
139. Kelly D.F., Goodale D.B., Williams J., et al. Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury: a randomized, prospective double-blinded pilot trial. J Neurosurg 90 (1999) 1042-1052
140. Carley S., and Crawford I. Propofol for resistant status epilepticus. Emerg Med J 19 (2002) 143-144
141. Begemann M., Rowan A.J., and Tuhrim S. Treatment of refractory complex-partial status epilepticus with propofol: case report. Epilepsia 41 (2000) 105-109
142. Stecker M.M., Kramer T.H., Raps E.C., O'Meeghan R., Dulaney E., and Skaar D.J. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with propofol: clinical and pharmacokinetic findings. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 18-26
143. Brown L.A., and Levin G.M. Role of propofol in refractory status epilepticus. Ann Pharmacother 32 (1998) 1053-1059
144. Pitt-Miller P.L., Elcock B.J., and Maharaj M. The management of status epilepticus with a continuous propofol infusion. Anesth Analg 78 (1994) 1193-1194
145. Mackenzie S.J., Kapadia F., and Grant I.S. Propofol infusion for control of status epilepticus. Anaesthesia 45 (1990) 1043-1045
146. Makela J.P., Iivanainen M., Pieninkeroinen I.P., Waltimo O., and Lahdensuu M. Seizures associated with propofol anesthesia. Epilepsia 34 (1993) 832-835
147. Borgeat A. Propofol: pro-or anticonvulsant?. Eur J Anaesthesiol Suppl 15 (1997) 17-20
148. Bansinath M., Shukla V.K., and Turndorf H. Propofol modulates the effects of chemoconvulsants acting at GABAergic, glycinergic, and glutamate receptor subtypes. Anesthesiology 83 (1995) 809-815
149. Perrier N.D., Baerga-Varela Y., and Murray M.J. Death related to propofol use in an adult patient. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 3071-3074
150. Devlin J.W., Boleski G., Mlynarek M., Nerenz D.R., Peterson E., Jankowski M., et al. Motor Activity Assessment Scale: a valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an acute surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 27 (1999) 1271-1275
151. Riker R.R., Fraser G.L., Simmons L.E., and Wilkins M.L. Validating the Sedation-Agitation Scale with the Bispectral Index and Visual Analog Scale in adult ICU patients after cardiac surgery. Int Care Med 27 (2001) 853-858
152. Sessler C.N., Gosnell M.S., Grap M.J., et al. The Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale. Validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166 (2002) 1338-1344