An update on the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency and the use of corticotherapy in critical illness

Annals of Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 41, Issue 9, 2007, Pages 1456-1465

  Thomas, Zachariah ^a,b   Fraser, Gilles L ^c,d  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HACKENSACK UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d MAINE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute respiratory distress syndrome; Adrenal insufficiency; Cortisol; Hydrocortisone; Pneumonia; Sepsis

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOTROPIN; CORTODOXONE; ETOMIDATE; FLUDROCORTISONE; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYPROGESTERONE; HYPERTENSIVE FACTOR; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; METYRAPONE; PLACEBO; PRASTERONE; PREDNISOLONE; STEROID; STEROID 11BETA MONOOXYGENASE;

ADRENAL FUNCTION; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ARTICLE; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; CORTICOTROPIN TEST; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MEDLINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK;

ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; PNEUMONIA, PNEUMOCYSTIS; PYRIDINES; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT; SEPSIS; STEROIDS;

EID: 34548156461     PISSN: 10600280     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1345/aph.1K082     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Prigent H, Maxime V, Annane D. Clinical review: corticotherapy in sepsis. Crit Care 2004;8:122-9.
2. Perla D, Marmorston J. Suprarenal cortical hormone and salt in the treatment of pneumonia and other severe infections. Endocrinology 1940;27:367-74.
3. Glyn J. The discovery and early use of cortisone. J R Soc Med 1998;91:513-7.
4. Prigent H, Maxime V, Annane D. Science review: mechanisms of impaired adrenal function in sepsis and molecular actions of glucocorticoids. Crit Care 2004;8:243-52.
5. Kollef MH, Schuster DP. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995;332:27-37.
6. Monton C, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, Filella X, Xaubet A, de la Bellacasa JP. Cytokine expression in severe pneumonia: a bronchoalveolar lavage study. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1745-53.
7. Burry LD, Wax RS. Role of corticosteroids in septic shock. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38:464-72. Epub 23 Jan 2004. DOI 10.1345/aph.1C435
8. Melby JC, Spink WW. Comparative studies on adrenal cortical function and cortisol metabolism in healthy adults and in patients with shock due to infection. J Clin Invest 1958;37:1791-8.
9. Rothwell PM, Udwadia ZF, Lawler PG. Cortisol response to corticotropin and survival in septic shock. Lancet 1991;337:582-3.
10. Oelkers W. Adrenal insufficiency. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1206-12.
11. Annane D, Sebille V, Troche G, Raphael JC, Gajdos P, Bellissant E. A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin. JAMA 2000;283:1038-45.
12. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill: a new look at an old problem. Chest 2002;122:1784-96.
13. Loisa P, Uusaro A, Ruokonen E. Single adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulation test does not reveal adrenal insufficiency in septic shock. Anesth Analg 2005;101:1792-8.
14. Morel J, Venet C, Donati Y, et al. Adrenal axis function does not appear to be associated with hemodynamic improvement in septic shock patients systematically receiving glucocorticoid therapy. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:1184-90.
15. Minneci PC, Deans KJ, Banks SM, Eichacker PQ, Natanson C. Meta-analysis: the effect of steroids on survival and shock during sepsis depends on the dose. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:47-56.
16. Dickstein G. On the term "relative adrenal insufficiency" - or what do we really measure with adrenal stimulation tests? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:4973-4.
17. Arlt W, Allolio B. Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet 2003;361:881-93.
18. Schimmer BP, Parker KL. Adrenocorticotropic hormone; adrenocortical steroids and their synthetic analogs; inhibitors of the synthesis and actions of adrenocortical hormones. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, eds. Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001:1649-77.
19. Berneis K, Staub JJ, Gessler A, Meier C, Girard J, Müller B. Combined stimulation of adrenocorticotropin and compound-S by single dose metyrapone test as an outpatient procedure to assess hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:5470-5.
20. Annane D, Maxime V, Ibrahim F, Alvarez JC, Abe E, Boudou P. Diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency in severe sepsis and septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:1319-26.
21. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, et al. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians /Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest 1992;101:1644-55.
22. Hamrahian AH, Oseni TS, Arafah BM. Measurements of serum free cortisol in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2004;350:1629-38.
23. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Adrenal insufficiency during septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003;31:141-5.
24. Annane D, Fan E, Herridge MS. Pro-con debate: steroid use in ACTH non-responsive septic shock patients with high baseline cortisol levels. Crit Care 2006;10:210. DOI 10.1186/cc4856
25. Guyatt GH, Drummond R, eds. Users' guides to the medical literature: a manual for evidence-based clinical practice. Chicago: American Medical Association Press; 2001. www.ugi.usersguides.org (accessed 2006 Dec 15).
26. Mayenknecht J, Diederich S, Bähr V, Plöckinger U, Oelkers W. Comparison of low and high dose corticotropin stimulation tests in patients with pituitary disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1558-62.
27. Siraux V, De Backer D, Yalavatti G, et al. Relative adrenal insufficiency in patients with septic shock: comparison of low-dose and conventional corticotropin tests. Crit Care Med 2005;33:2479-86.
28. Dorin RI, Qualls CR, Crapo LM. Diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:194-204.
29. Widmer IE, Puder JJ, Konig C, et al. Cortisol response in relation to the severity of stress and illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:4579-86.
30. Annane D. Low-dose adrenocorticotropic hormone test is not ready for routine adrenal function testing in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2005;33:2688-9.
31. Kozyra EF, Wax RS, Burry LD. Can 1 μg of cosyntropin be used to evaluate adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients? Ann Pharmacother 2005;39:691-8. Epub 1 Mar 2005. DOI 10.1345/aph.1E139
32. Venkatesh B, Mortimer RH, Couchman B, Hall J. Evaluation of random plasma cortisol and the low dose corticotropin test as indicators of adrenal secretory capacity in critically ill patients: a prospective study. Anaesth Intensive Care 2005;33:201-9.
33. Bouachour G, Roy PM, Guiraud MP. The repetitive short corticotropin stimulation test in patients with septic shock. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:962-3.
34. Clark PM, Neylon I, Raggatt PR, Sheppard MC, Stewart PM. Defining the normal cortisol response to the short Synacthen test: implications for the investigation of hypothalamic-pituitary disorders. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998;49:287-92.
35. Cohen J, Ward G, Prins J, Jones M, Venkatesh B. Variability of cortisol assays can confound the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill population. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:1901-5.
36. Roberts RF, Roberts WL. Performance characteristics of five automated serum cortisol immunoassays. Clin Biochem 2004;37:489-93.
37. Briegel J, Vogeser M, Annane D, et al. Correct identification of relative adrenal insufficiency in septic shock (abstract). Intensive Care Med 2005;31:A610.
38. Vogeser M, Briegel J, Singer M, et al. Measurement of cortisol in septic shock: interlaboratory harmonization (abstract). Intensive Care Med 2005;31:A611.
39. Keh D. Corticosteroid therapy in sepsis: where are we? Adv Sepsis 2006;5:138-40.
40. Arafah BM. Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal function during critical illness: limitations of current assessment methods. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:3725-45.
41. Bolland MJ, Chiu WW, Davidson JS, Croxson MS. Heterophile antibodies may cause falsely lowered serum cortisol values. J Endocrinol Invest 2005;28:643-5.
42. Annane D, Bellissant E, Sebille V, et al. Impaired pressor sensitivity to noradrenaline in septic shock patients with and without impaired adrenal function reserve. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998;46:589-97.
43. Annane D, Sebille V, Bellissant E. Effect of low doses of corticosteroids in septic shock patients with or without early acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2006;34:22-30.
44. Bollaert PE, Fieux F, Charpentier C, Lévy B. Baseline cortisol levels, cortisol response to corticotropin, and prognosis in late septic shock. Shock 2003;19:13-5.
45. Malerba G, Romano-Girard F, Cravoisy A, et al. Risk factors of relative adrenocortical deficiency in intensive care patients needing mechanical ventilation, intensive Care Med 2005;31:388-92.
46. Lipiner-Friedman D, Sprung CL, Laterre PF, et al. Adrenal function in sepsis: the retrospective Corticus cohort study. Crit Care Med 2007;35:1012-8.
47. Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert PE, Briegel J, Keh D, Kupfer Y. Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2004;329:480.
48. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002;288:862-71.
49. Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B, Debouverie M, Audibert G, Larcan A. Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med 1998;26:645-50.
50. Briegel J, Forst H, Haller M, et al. Stress doses of hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-center study. Crit Care Med 1999;27:723-32.
51. Chawla K, Kupfer Y, Tessler S. Hydrocortisone reverses refractory septic shock (abstract). Crit Care Med 1999;27:A33.
52. Yildiz O, Doganay M, Aygen B, Guven M, Kelestimur F, Tutuu A. Physiological-dose steroid therapy in sepsis [ISRCTN36253388]. Crit Care 2002;6:251-9.
53. Wagner RL, White PF, Kan PB, Rosenthal MH, Feldman D. Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis by the anesthetic etomidate. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1415-21.
54. Le Gall JR, Lemeshow S, Saulnier F. A new Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) based on a European/North American multicenter study. JAMA 1993; 270:2957-63. Erratum in: JAMA 1994;271:1321.
55. Société Française d'Anesthésie et de Réanimation. Paris. www.sfar.org/scores2/saps2.html (accessed 2006 Dec 16).
56. Millo J. Corticosteroids for patients with septic shock (letter). JAMA 2003;289:41.
57. Vincent JL. Is the current management of severe sepsis and septic shock really evidence based? PLoS Med 2006;3:e346.
58. Rubenfeld GD. When survival is not the same as mortality. Critical Care Alert 2003;10:113-5.
59. Annane D, Sebille V. Corticosteroids for patients with septic shock (letter). JAMA 2003;289:43-4.
60. Mohammad Z, Afessa B, Finkielman JD. The incidence of relative adrenal insufficiency in patients with septic shock after the administration of etomidate. Crit Care 2006;10:R105. DOI 10.1186/cc4979
61. Absalom A, Pledger D, Kong A. Adrenocortical function in critically ill patients 24 h after a single dose of etomidate. Anaesthesia 1999;54:861-7.
62. Allolio B, Stuttmann R, Leonhard U, Fischer H, Winkelmann W. Adrenocortical suppression by a single induction dose of etomidate. Klin Wochenschr 1984;62:1014-7.
63. Jurney TH, Cockrell JL, Lindberg JS, Lamiell JM, Wade CE. Spectrum of serum cortisol response to ACTH in ICU patients. Correlation with degree of illness and mortality. Chest 1987;92:292-5.
64. Wade CE, Lindberg JS, Cockrell JL, et al. Upon-admission adrenal steroidogenesis is adapted to the degree of illness in intensive care unit patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67:223-7.
65. Jones D, Hayes M, Webb S, French C, Bellomo R. Relative adrenal insufficiency in etomidate-naive patients with septic shock. Anaesth Intensive Care 2006;34:599-605.
66. Annane D, Sebille V, Bellissant E. Exploring the role of etomidate in septic shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome (letter). Crit Care Med 2006;34:1858-9.
67. Luce JM. Physicians should administer low-dose corticosteroids selectively to septic patients until an ongoing trial is completed. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:70-2.
68. Hadassah Medical Organization; European Society of Intensive Care Medicine; International Sepsis Forum; The Gorham Foundation. Corticosteroid Therapy of Septic Shock - CORTICUS. www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00147004 (accessed 2007 Apr 20).
69. Sprung CL. CORTICUS Trial. Presented at: Society of Critical Care Medicine - 36th Annual Congress, Orlando, FL, February 19, 2007.
70. Drawdy S, Allen M, Winterstein AG, Allen M, Jantz MA. Effect of hydrocortisone vs hydrocortisone plus fludrocortisone on mortality in critically ill (abstract). Crit Care Med 2005;33:A168.
71. Gonzalez H, Nardi O, Annane D. Relative adrenal failure in the ICU: an identifiable problem requiring treatment. Crit Care Clin 2006;22:105-18 vii.
72. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1368-77.
73. Corticosteroid therapy of septic shock (CORTICUS). Presented at: 2007 American Thoracic Society International Conference, San Francisco, May 18-23,2007. www.abstracts2view.com/ats07 (accessed 2007 Aug 2).
74. Annane D, Beale R, Reinhart K, Janes J, Nelson DR, Williams MD. Global utilization of low dose corticosteroids in severe sepsis: a report from the PROGRESS Registry (abstract). Crit Care Med 2006;34:A110.
75. Steinberg KP, Hudson LD, Goodman RB, et al. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1671-84.
76. Ware LB, Matthay MA. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1334-49.
77. Thomas Z, Kimborowicz K. Corticosteroids in ARDS: the never-ending story. Hosp Pharm 2007;42:691-701.
78. Meduri GU, Headley AS, Golden E, et al. Effect of prolonged methylprednisolone therapy in unresolving acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:159-65.
79. Montori VM, Devereaux PJ, Adhikari NK, et al. Randomized trials stopped early for benefit: a systematic review. JAMA 2005;294:2203-9.
80. Brun-Buisson C, Brochard L. Corticosteroid therapy in acute respiratory distress syndrome: better late than never? JAMA 1998;280:182-3.
81. Wheeler A, Bernard GR, Schoenfeld D, Steinberg K. Methylprednisolone for unresolving ARDS (letter). JAMA 1998;280:2074.
82. Meduri GU, Tolley EA, Chrousos GP, Stentz F. Prolonged methylprednisolone treatment suppresses systemic inflammation in patients with unresolving acute respiratory distress syndrome. Evidence for inadequate endogenous glucocorticoid secretion and inflammation-induced immune cell resistance to glucocorticoids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:983-91.
83. Meduri GU, Chrousos GP. Effectiveness of prolonged glucocorticoid treatment in acute respiratory distress syndrome: the right drug, the right way? Crit Care Med 2006;34:236-8.
84. Keh D, Boehnke T, Weber-Cartens S, et al. Immunologic and hemodynamic effects of "low-dose" hydrocortisone in septic shock: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:512-20.
85. Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL, et al. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1565-70.
86. Dellinger RP. Post hoc analyses in sepsis trials: a formula for disappointment? Crit Care Med 1996;24:727-9.
87. Lagakos SW. The challenge of subgroup analyses - reporting without distorting. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1667-9. Erratum in: N Engl J Med 2006;355:533.
88. Assmann SF, Pocock SJ, Enos LE, et al. Subgroup analysis and other (mis)uses of baseline data in clinical trials. Lancet 2000;355:1064-9.
89. Smith R, Roberts I. Patient safety requires a new way to publish clinical trials. PLoS Clin Trials 2006;1:e6. DOI 10.1371/journal.pctr.0010006
90. Meduri GU, Golden E, Freire AX, et al. Methylprednisolone infusion in early severe ARDS: results of a randomized controlled trial. Chest 2007;131:954-63.
91. Schutte H, Lohmeyer J, Rosseau S, et al. Bronchoalveolar and systemic cytokine profiles in patients with ARDS, severe pneumonia and cardiogenic pulmonary oedema. Eur Respir J 1996;9:1858-67.
92. Bozzette SA, Sattler FR, Chiu J, et al. A controlled trial of early adjunctive treatment with corticosteroids for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1451-7.
93. Marik P, Kraus P, Sribante J, Havlik I, Lipman J, Johnson DW. Hydrocortisone and tumor necrosis factor in severe community-acquired pneumonia. A randomized controlled study. Chest 1993;104:389-92.
94. Monton C, Ewig S, Torres A, et al. Role of glucocorticoids on inflammatory response in nonimmunosuppressed patients with pneumonia: a pilot study. Eur Respir J 1999;14:218-20.
95. Confalonieri M, Urbino R, Potena A, et al. Hydrocortisone infusion for severe community-acquired pneumonia: a preliminary randomized study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171:242-8.
96. Ewig S, Ruiz M, Mensa J, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Assessment of severity criteria. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1102-8.
97. Salluh JI, Verdeal JC, Mello GW, et al. Cortisol levels in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:595-8.