Fluid phase separation processes in submarine hydrothermal systems

Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry

Volumn 65, Issue , 2007, Pages 213-239

  Foustoukos, Dionysis I ^a   Seyfried Jr , William E ^b  

^a GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547684592     PISSN: 15296466     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.2138/rmg.2007.65.7     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Alt JC, Barrie CT, Hannington MD (1999) Hydrothermal alteration and mineralization of oceanic crust; mineralogy, geochemistry, and processes. In: Volcanic-associated Massive Sulfide Deposits; Processes and Examples in Modern and Ancient Settings. Barrie CT, Hannington MD (eds) Rev Econ Geol 8:133-155
2. Alt JC, Teagle DAH (2000) Hydrothermial alteration and fluid fluxes in ophiolites and oceanic crust. In: Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust: New Insights from Field Studies and the Ocean Drilling Program. Dilek Y, Moores EM, Elthon D, Nicolas A (eds) Geol Soc Am Special Paper 349:273-282
3. 2O above 573 °C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:1657-1680
4. Audetat A, Gunther D, Heinrich CA (1998) Formation of a magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit: insights with LA-ICP-MS analysis of fluid inclusions. Science 279:2091-2093
5. Bai W, Xu W, Lowell RP (2003) The dynamics of submarine geothermal heat pipes. Geophys Res Lett 30:1108
6. Baker T, Achterberg E, Ryan CG, Lang JR (2004) Composition and evolution of ore fluids in a magmatic-hydrothermal skarn deposits. Geology 32:117-120
7. 2O system. 11th Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference, Geochemical Society, p 3692-3693
8. Berndt ME, Seal RR, Shank WC, Seyfried WE (1996) Hydrogen isotope systematics of phase separation in submarine hydrothermal systems: experimental calibration and theoretical models. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 60:1595-1604
9. Berndt ME, Seyfried WE (1990) Boron, bromine, and other trace elements as clues to the fate of chlorine in mid-ocean ridge vent fluids. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:2235-2245
10. Berndt ME, Seyfried WE (1993) Experimental investigation of phase-separation and the behavior of Fe in subseafloor hydrothermal systems. EOS Trans, Am Geophys Union 74:666
11. Berndt ME, Seyfried WE (1997) Calibration of Br/Cl fractionation during subcritical phase separation of seawater; possible halite at 9 to 10° N, East Pacific Rise, Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:2849-2854
12. Bischoff JL (1980) Geothermal system at 21° N, east pacific rise: physical limits on geothermal fluid and role of adiabatic expansion. Science 207:1465-1469
13. 2O solutions; a PVTx summary from 300° to 500 °C. Am J Sci 291:309-338
14. Bischoff JL, Pitzer KS (1985) Phase relations and adiabats in boiling seafloor geothermal systems. Earth Planet Sci Lett 75:327-338
15. Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1984) The critical point and two-phase boundary of seawater, 200-500 °C. Earth Planet Sci Lett 68:172-180
16. Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1997) Phase separation in seafloor geothermal systems: An experimental study of the effects on metal transport. Am J Sci 287:953-978
17. Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1988) Liquid-vapor relations in the critical region of the system sodium chloride-water from 380 to 415 °C: A refined determination of the critical point and two-phase boundary of seawater. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 52:2121-2126
18. Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1989) Salinity variations in submarine hydrothermal systems by layered double-diffusive convection. J Geol 97:613-623
19. Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ, Pitzer KS (1986) The system sodium chloride-water: Relations of vapor-liquid near the critical temperature of water and vapor-liquid-halite from 300 to 500 °C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 50:1437-1444
20. Bohnenstiehl DR, Dziak RP, Tolstoy M, Fox CG, Fowler M (2004) Temporal and spatial history of the 1999-2000 Endeavour Segment seismic series, Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geochem Geophys Geosy 5:doi:10.1029/2004GC000735
21. Bonifacie M, Charlou JL, Jendrzejewski N, Agrinier P, Donval JP (2005) Chlorine isotopic composition of high temperature hydrothermal vent fluids over ridge axes. Chem Geol 221:279-288
22. Butterfield DA, Jonasson IR, Massoth GJ, Feely RA, Roe KK, Embley RE, Holden JF, McDuff RE, Lilley MD, Delaney JR (1999) Seafloor eruptions and evolution of hydrothermal fluid chemistry. In: Mid-ocean Ridges; Dynamics of Processes Associated with Creation of New Ocean Crust. Cann JR, Elderfield H, Laughton A (eds) Cambridge University Press, p 153-170
23. Butterfield DA, Massoth GJ, McDuff RE, Lupton JE, Lilley MD (1990) Geochemistry of hydrothermal fluids from Axial Seamount Hydrothermal Emissions Study Vent Field, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Subseafloor boiling and subsequent fluid-rock interaction. J Geophys Res 95:12,895-12,921
24. Butterfield DA, McDuff RE, Mottl MJ, Lilley MD, Lupton JE, Massoth GJ (1994) Gradients in the composition of hydrothermal fluids from the Endeavour segment vent field: phase separation and brine loss. J Geophys Res 99:9561-9583
25. Campbell AC, Palmer MR, Klinkhammer GP, Bowers TS, Edmond JM, Lawrence JF, Casey JF, Thompson G, Humphris S, Rona P, Karson JA (1988) Chemistry of hot springs on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Nature 335:514-519
26. Charlou JL, Donval JP, Douville E, Jean-Baptiste P, Radford-Knoery J, Fouquet Y, Dapoigny A, Stievenard M (2000) Compared geochemical signatures and the evolution of Menez Gwen (37°50°N) and Lucky Strike (37°17′N) hydrothermal fluids, south of the Azores triple junction on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Chem Geol 171:49-75
27. 4 vent fluids issuing from ultramatic rocks at the Rainbow hydrothermal field (36°14′N. MAR). Chem Geol 191:345-359
28. Charlou JL, Donval JP, Jean-Baptiste P, Dapoigny A, Rona PA (1996) Gases and helium isotopes in high temperature solutions sampled before and after ODP Leg 158 drilling at TAG hydrothermal field (26° N, MAR). Geophys Res Lett 23:3491-3494
29. Chiba H, Masuda H, Fujioka K (2001) Chemistry of hydrothermal fluids at the TAG active mound, MAR 26° N, in 1998. Geophys Res Lett 28:2919-2922
30. 2O to 1000 °C and 1500 bars. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 51:1965-1975
31. 2O at supercritical temperatures and pressures. J Chem Phys 21:12-16
32. Corliss JB, Dymond J, Gordon LI, Edmond JM, Von Herzen RP, Ballard RD, Green K, Williams D, Bainbridge A, and et al. (1979) Submarine thermal springs on the Galapagos Rift. Science 203:1073-83
33. Detrick RS, Buhl B, Vera E, Mutter J, Orcutt J, Madsen J, Brocher T (1987) Multi-channel seismic imaging of a crustal magma chamber along the East Pacific Rise. Nature 326:35-41
34. 2S in NaCl solutions at 300-425 °C, 300-500 bars with application to ridge crest hydrothermal systems. EOS Trans, Am Geophys Union 71:1680
35. Douville E, Charlou JL, Oelkers EH, Bienvenu P, Jove Colon CF. Donval JP, Fouquet Y, Prieur D, Appriou P (2002) The Rainbow vent fluids (36° 14′N, MAR): the influence of ultramatic rocks and phase separation on trace metal content in Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal fluids. Chem Geol 184:37-48
36. Driesner T (1997) The effect of pressure on deuterium-hydrogen fractionation in high-temperature water. Science 277:791-794
37. Driesner T, Geiger S (2007) Numerical simulation of multiphase fluid flow in hydrothermal systems. Rev Mineral Geochem 65:187-212
38. NaCI. Geochim Cosmochim Acta (in press)
39. -: a theoretical study. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 64:3007-3033
40. Driesner T, Seward TJ, Tironi IG (1998) Molecular dynamics simulation study of ionic hydration and ion association in dilute and 1 molal aqueous solutions from ambient to supercritical conditions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 62:3095-3107
41. Drummond SE (1981) Boiling and mixing of hydrothermal fluids: chemical effects on mineral precipitation. PhD Dissertation. The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania
42. Drummond SE, Ohmoto H (1985) Chemical evolution and mineral deposition in boiling hydrothermal systems. Econ Geol 80:126-147
43. Edmond JM, Campbell AC, Palmer M, Klinkhammer GP, German CR, Edmonds HN, Elderfield H, Thompson G, Rona P (1995) Time series studies of vent fluids from the TAG and MARK sites (1986, 1990) Mid-Atlantic Ridge: a new solution chemistry model and mechanism for Cu/Zn zonation in massive sulfide ore deposits. In: Hydrothermal Vents and Processes. Parson LM, Walker CL, Dixon DR (eds) Geological Society Special Publication No. 87, p 77-86
44. Edmond JM, Measures C, McDuff RE, Chan LH, Collier R, Grant B, Gordon LI, Corliss JB (1979) Ridge crest hydrothermal activity and the balances of the major and minor elements in the ocean: the Galapagos data. Earth Planet Sci Lett 46:1-18
45. Edmonds HN, German CR, Green DRH, Hub Y, Gamo T, Edmond JM (1996) Continuation of the hydrothermal fluid chemistry time series at TAG, and the effects of ODP drilling. Geophys Res Lett 23:3487-3489
46. Ellis AJ, Golding RM (1963) The solubility of carbon dioxide above 100 °C in water and in sodium chloride solutions. Am J Sci 261:47-60
47. Faust CR, Mercer JW (1979) Geothermal reservoir simulation. 1. Mathematical models for liquid- and vapor-dominated hydrothermal systems. Water Resour Res 15:23-30
48. Fontaine FJ, Wilcock WS (2006) Dynamics and storage of brine in mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems. J Geophys Res 111:doi:10.1029/ 2005JB003866
49. Fontaine FJ, Wilcock WS, Butterfield DA (2007) Physical controls on the salinity of mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal vent fluids. Earth Planet Sci Lett 257:132-145
50. Fornari DJ, Shank T, Von Damm KL, Gregg TKP, Lilley M, Levai G, Bray A, Haymon RM, Perfit MR, Lutz R (1998) Time-series temperature measurements at high-temperature hydrothermal vents, East Pacific Rise 9°49′-51′N: evidence for monitoring a crustal cracking event. Earth Planet Sci Lett 160:419-431
51. Fournier RO, Potter PW (1983) An equation correlating the solubility of quartz in water from 25° to 900 °C at pressures up to 10000 bars. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 46:1969-1973
52. Foustoukos DI, James RH, Berndt ME, Seyfried WE (2004) Lithium isotopic systematics of hydrothermal vent fluids at the Main Endeavour Field, Northern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Chem Geol 212:17-26
53. Foustoukos DI, Seyfried WE (2005) Redox and pH constraints in the subseafloor root zone of the TAG hydrothermal system 26°N Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Earth Planet Sci Lett 235:497-510
54. Foustoukos DI, Seyfried WE (2007a) Trace element partitioning between vapor, brine and halite under extreme phase separation conditions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:2056-2071
55. Foustoukos DI, Seyfried WE (2007b) Quartz solubility in the two-phase and critical region of seawater fluids: Implications for submarine hydrothermal vent systems at 9°50′N East Pacific Rise. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:186-201
56. Gallant RM, Von Damm KL (2006) Geochemical controls on hydrothermal fluids from the Kairei and Edmond vent fields, 23°-25°S, Central Indian Ridge. Geochem Geophys Geosy 7: doi:10.1029/2005CTC001067
57. Gamo T, Chiba H, Masuda H, Edmonds HN, Fujioka K, Kodama Y, Nanba H, Sano Y (1996) Chemical characteristics of hydrothermal fluids from the TAG mound of the mid-Atlantic Ridge in August 1994: implications for spatial and temporal variability of hydrothermal activity. Geophys Res Lett 23:3483-3486
58. 2O fluid convection in the Earth's crust. J Geophys Res 110:doi:10.1029/2004JB003362
59. 2O equation of state. Transport Porous Med 63:435-461
60. German CR, Von Damm KL (2003) Hydrothermal processes. Treatise on Geochemistry 6:181-222
61. Gillis KM (2002) The root zone of an ancient hydrothermal system exposed in the Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus. J Geol 110:57-74
62. Gillis KM, Roberts MD (1999) Cracking at the magma-hydrothermal transition: evidence from the Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus. Earth Planet Sci Lett 169:227-244
63. Grover PK, Ryall RL (2004) Critical appraisal of salting-out and it's implications for chemical and biological sciences. Chem Rev 105:10.1021/ cr030454p
64. 2O component in boiling NaCl solutions, preliminary steam tables for NaCl solutions. Geol Survey Bull 1421-A
65. Haas JL (1976b) Thermodynamic properties of the coexisting phases and thermochemical properties of the NaCl component in boiling NaCl solutions. Geol Survey Bull 1421-B
66. Hayba DO, Ingebritsen SE (1994) The computer model Hydrotherm, a three-dimensional finite-difference model to simulate ground-water flow and heat transport in the temperature range of 0 to 1,200 °C. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report # 94-4045
67. Hayba DO, Ingebritsen SE (1997) Multiphase groundwater flow near cooling plutons. J Geophys Res 102:12235-12252
68. Heinrich CA, Gunther D, Audetat A, Ulrich T, Frischknecht R (1999) Metal fractionation between magmatic brine and vapor, and the link between porphyry-style and epithermal Cu-Au deposits. Geology 27:755-758
69. Ho PC, Palmer DA, Bianchi H, Wood RH (2000) A flow-through high-pressure electrical conductance cell for determination of ion association of aqueous electrolyte solutions at high temperature and pressure. Steam, Water, and Hydrothermal Systems: 13th Physics and Chemistry Meeting the Needs of Industry, Proc Int Conf on the Properties of Water and Steam, p 661-668
70. Ho PC, Palmer DA, Gruszkiewicz MS (2001) Conductivity measurements of dilute aqueous HC1 solutions to high temperatures and pressures using a flow-through cell. J Phys Chem B 105:1260-1266
71. Ho PC, Palmer DA, Mesmer RE (1994) Electrical conductivity measurements of aqueous sodium chloride solutions to 600 °C and 300 MPa. J Solution Chem 23:997-1018
72. Horita J, Cole DR, Wesolowski DJ (1995) The activity-composition relationship of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in aqueous salt solutions; III, Vapor-liquid water equilibration of NaCl solutions to 350 °C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59:1139-1151
73. Horita J, Wesolowski D, Cole DR (1993a) The activity-composition relationship of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in aqueous salt solutions: I. vapor-liquid water equilibration of single salt solutions from 50 to 100 °C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:2797-2817
74. Horita J, Wesolowski D, Cole DR (1993b) The activity-composition relationship of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in aqueous salt solutions: II. vapor-liquid water equilibration of mixed salt solutions from 50 to 100 °C and geochemical implications. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:4703-4711
75. 2O. Geophys Res Lett 21:2199-2202
76. James RH, Elderfield H, Palmer MR (1995) The chemistry of hydrothermal fluids from the Broken Spur site 29°N Mid Atlantic Ridge. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59:651-661
77. Jean-Baptiste P, Charlou JL, Stievenard M, Donval JP, Bougault H, Mevel C (1991) Helium and methane measurements in hydrothermal fluids from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: the Snake Pit site at 23°N. Earth Planet Sci Lett 106:17-28
78. Kawada Y, Yoshiba S, Watanabe S (2004) Numerical simulations of mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal circulation including the phase separation of seawater. Earth Planet Space 56:193-215
79. Keevil NB (1942) Vapor pressures of aqueous solutions at high temperatures. J Am Chem Soc 64:841-850
80. Kelley DS, Baross JA, Delaney JR (2002) Volcanoes, fluids and life at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 30:385-491
81. Kent GM, Harding A, Orcutt JA (1993) Distribution of magma beneath the East Pacific Rise between the Clipperton Transform and the 9°l7′N overlapping spreading center from forward modeling of common depth point data. J Geophys Res 98:13971-13996
82. Khaibullin IK, Borisov NM (1966) Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of aqueous and vapor solutions of sodium and potassium chlorides at phase equilibrium. Teplofizika Vysokikh Temperatur 4:518-523
83. Kishima N, Sakai H (1984) Fugacity-concentradon relationship of dilute hydrogen in water at elevated temperature and pressure. Earth Planet Sci Lett 67:79-86
84. Kissling WM (2005) Transport of three-phase hyper-saline brines in porous media: Theory and code implementation. Transport Porous Med 61:25-44
85. Koschinsky A, Garbe-Schoenberg D, Seifert HJ, Strauss H, Weber S, Marbler H (2006) 400 °C hot boiling fluids from a hydrothermal field at 5°S on the mid-atlantic ridge - Results of Meteor Cruise M64/1. AGU Fall Meeting p QS33A-1456
86. 3 between water and steam at high temperatures. J Chem Thermodyn 31:1511-1521
87. Larson BI, Olson EJ, Lilley MD (2007) In-situ measurements of dissolved chloride in high temperature hydrothermal fluids. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 71:2510-2523
88. 4 in the rift zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Dokl Akad Nauk 375:380-383
89. Lewis K, Lowell RP (2004) Mathematical modeling of phase separation of seawater near an igneous dike. Geofluids 4:197-209
90. Liebscher A (2007) Experimental studies in model fluid systems. Rev Mineral Geochern 65:15-47
91. Liebscher A, Heinrich CA (2007) Fluid-fluid interactions in the Earth's lithosphere. Rev Mineral Geochem 65:1-13
92. 2O-LiCl at 400 °C/20 to 28 MPa. Geofluids (in press)
93. Liebscher A, Barnes J, Sharp Z (2006a) Chlorine isotope vapor-liquid fractionation during experimental fluid-phase separation at 400 °C/23 MPa to 450 °C/42 MPa. Chem Geol 234:340-345
94. Liebscher A, Luders V, Heinrich W, Schettler G (2006b) Br/Cl signature of hydrothermal fluids: liquid-vapour fractionation of bromine revisited. Geofluids 6(2):113-121, doi:10.1111/j.1468-8123.2006.00135.x
95. Liebscher A, Meixner A, Romer RL, Heinrich W (2005) Liquid-vapor fractionation of boron and boron isotopes: Experimental calibration at 400 °C/23 MPa to 450 °C/42 MPa. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 69:5693-5704
96. Lilley MD, Butterfield DA, Lupton JE, Olson EJ (2003) Magmatic events can produce rapid changes in hydrothermal vent chemistry. Nature 422:878-881
97. Lilley MD, Butterfield DA, Olson EJ, Lupton JE, Macko SA, McDuff RE (1993) Anomalous methane and ammonium concentrations at an unsedimented mid-ocean-ridge hydrothermal system. Nature 364:45-47
98. Liu C-t, Lindsay WT (1972) Thermodynamics of sodium chloride solutions at high temperatures. J Solution Chem 1:45-69
99. Lowell RP, Germanovich LN (1997) Evolufion of a brine-saturated layer at the base of a ridge-crest hydrothermal system. J Geophys Res 102:10245-10255
100. Lowell RP, Xu W (2000) Subcritical two-phase seawater convection near a dike. Earth Planet Sci Lett 174:385-396
101. Mashovets VP, Zarembo VI, Fedorov MK (1973) Vapor pressures of aqueous solutions of NaCl, NaBr, and NaI at temperatures in the range of 150-350 °C. J Appl Chem-USSR 46:684-686
102. Masterton WL, Lee TP (1970) Salting coefficients from scaled particle theory. J Phys Chem 74:1776-1782
103. Mercer JW, Faust CR (1979) Review of numerical simulation of hydrothermal systems. Hydr Sci Bulletin 24:335-344
104. Nehlig P, Juteau T, Bendel V, Cotten J (1994) The root zones of oceanic hydrothermal systems - Constraints from the Samail ophiolite (Oman). J Geophys Res 99:4703-4713
105. Oelkers EH, Helgeson HC (1990) Triple-ion anions and polynuclear complexing in supercritical electrolyte solutions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:727-738
106. Oelkers EH, Helgeson HC (1991) Calculation of activity coefficients and degrees of formation of neutral ion pairs in supercritical electrolyte solutions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 55:1235-1251
107. Oelkers EH, Helgeson HC (1993a) Calculation of dissociation constants and the relative stabilities of polynuclear clusters of 1:1 electrolytes in hydrothermal solutions at supercritical pressures and temperatures. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 57:2673-2697
108. Oelkers EH, Helgeson HC (1993b) Multiple ion association in supercritical aqueous solutions of single electrolytes. Science 261:888-891
109. Olander A, Liander H (1950) The phase diagram of sodium chloride and steam above the critical point. Acta Chim Scand 4:1437-1445
110. Oosting SE, Von Damm KL (1996) Bromide/chloride fractionation in seafloor hydrothermal fluids from 9-10° N East Pacific Rise. Earth Planet Sci Lett 144:133-145
111. Palmer DA, Simonson JM, Jensen JP (2004) Partitioning of electrolytes to steam and their solubilities in steam. In: Aqueous Systems at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures. Palmer DA, Fernandez-Prini R, Harvey AH (eds) Academic Press, p. 409-439
112. 2O system in the temperature range 300-440 °C. J Chem Eng Data 26:16-20
113. Pitzer KS (1990) Ion interaction approach theory and data correlation. In: Activity Coefficients in Electrolyte Solutions. Pitzer KS (ed) CRC Press Ltd, p 75-153
114. Pitzer KS (1995) Ionic fluids - near critical and related properties. J Phys Chem 99:13070-13077
115. Pitzer KS, Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1987) Critical behavior of dilute sodium chloride in water. Chem Phys Lett 134:60-63
116. Pitzer KS, Peiper JC, Busey RH (1984) Thermodynamic properties of aqueous sodium chloride solutions. J Phys Chem Ref Data 13:1-102
117. Pitzer KS, Schreiber DR (1987) The restricted primitive model for ionic fluids: properties of the vapor and the critical region. Mol Phys 60:1067-1078
118. Pokrovski GS, Roux J, Harrichourry JC (2005) Fluid density control on vapor-liquid partitioning of metals in hydrothermal systems. Geology 33:657-660
119. Pokrovski GS, Zakirov IV, Roux J, Testemale D, Hazemann JL, Bychkov AY, Golikova GV (2002) Experimental study of arsenic speciation in vapor phase to 500°C: Implications for As transport and fractionation in low-density fluids and volcanic gases. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 66:3453-3480
120. Ridge JD (1974) Note on boiling of ascending ore fluids and the position of volcanic-exhalative deposits in the modified Lindgren classification. Geology 2:287-288
121. Richardson CJ, Cann JR, Richards HG, Cowan JG (1987) Metal-depleted root zones of the Troodos ore-forming hydrothermal systems, Cyprus. Earth Planet Sci Lett 84:243-253
122. Rosenbauer RJ, Bischoff JL (1987) Pressure-composition relations for coexisting gases and liquids and the critical points in the system sodium chloride-water at 450, 475, and 500 °C. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 51:2349-54
123. 2O-NaCl at 800 °C and 100 MPa. Chem Geol 210:135-147
124. Schmidt C, Thomas R, Heinrich W (2005) Boron speciation in aqueous solutions at 22 to 600 °C and 0.1 MPa to 2 GPa. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 69:275-281
125. Schoofs S, Hansen U (2000) Depletion of a brine layer at the base of ridge-crest hydrothermal systems. Earth Planet Sci Lett 180:341-353
126. Seewald J, Cruse A, Saccocia P (2003) Aqueous volatiles in hydrothermal fluids from the Main Endeavour Field, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge: temporal variability following earthquake activity. Earth Planet Sci Lett 216:575-590
127. Seyfried WE, Berndt ME, Seewald JS (1988) Hydrothermal alteration processes at mid-ocean ridges: Constraints from diabase alteration experiments, hot-spring fluids and composition of the oceanic crust. Can Mineral 26:787-804
128. Seyfried WE, Ding K Berndt ME, Chen X (1999) Experimental and theoretical controls on the composition of mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal fluids In: Volcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits; Processes and Examples in Modern and Ancient Settings. Barrie CT, Hannington MD (eds) Rev Econ Geol 8:181-200
129. Seyfried WE, Foustoukos DI, Allen DE (2004) Ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal systems at mid-ocean ridges: chemical and physical controls on pH, redox and carbon reduction reactions. In: Mid-Ocean Ridges: Hydrothermal Interactions Between the Lithosphere and Oceans. German CR, Lin J, Parson LM (ed) Geophys Monogr Ser 148:267-284
130. Seyfried WE, Seewald JS, Berndt ME, Ding K, Foustoukos DI (2003) Chemistry of hydrothermal vent fluids from the Main Endeavour Field, Northern Juan de Fuca Ridge: Geochemical controls in the aftermath of June 1999 seismic events. J Geophys Res 108:2429
131. Seyfried WE, Janecky DR, Berndt ME (1987) Rocking autoclaves for hydrothermal experiments: II. The flexible reaction-cell system. In: Hydrothermal Experimental Techniques. Ulmer G, Barnes H (eds) Wiley-Interscience, p 216-239
132. Shank WC (2001) Stable isotopes in seafloor hydrothermal systems: Vent fluids, hydrothermal deposits, hydrothermal alteration, and microbial processes. Rev Mineral Geochem 43:469-525
133. Shank WC, Bohlke JK, Seal RR (1995) Stable isotopes in mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems; interactions between fluids, minerals, and organisms. In: Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems; Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions. Humphris SE, Zierenberg RA, Mullineaux LS, Thomson RE (eds) Geophys Monogr 91:194-221
134. Sharygin AV, Wood RH, Zimmerman GH, Batashov VN (2002) Multiple ion association versus redissociation in aqueous NaCl and KCl at high temperatures. J Phys Chem B 106:7121-7134
135. Shmulovich K, Landwehr D, Simon K, Heinrich W (1999) Stable isotope fractionation between liquid and vapour in water-salt systems up to 600 °C. Chem Geol 157:343-354
136. Shock EL, Sassani DC, Willis M, Sveijensky DA (1997) Inorganic species in geologic fluids: Correlations among standard molal thermodynamic properties of aqueous ions and hydroxide complexes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:907-950
137. Simonson JM, Palmer DA, Gruszkiewicz MS (2000) Liquid-vapor partitioning of aqueous electrolytes at temperatures to the solvent critical point. 14th Symposium on Thermophysical Properties. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO USA, http://www.symp14.nist.gov/ PDF/AQU04SIM.PDF
138. Smith CL, Ficklin WH, Thompson JM (1987) Concentrations of arsenic, antimony, and boron in steam and steam condensate at the geysers, California. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 32:329-341
139. Sohn RA, Hildebrand JA, Webb SC (1999) A microearthquake survey of the high-temperature vent fields on the volcanically active East Pacific Rise (9°50′N). J Geophys Res 104:25367-25377
140. 2O at elevated temperatures and pressures. Am J Sci 260:115-242
141. Spivack AJ, Berndt ME, Seyfried WE (1990) Boron isotope fractionation during supercritical phase separation. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:2337-2339
142. Stoffers P, Worthington TJ, Schwarz-Schampera U, Hannington M, Massoth GJ, Hekinian R, Schmidt M, Lundsten IJ, Evans LJ, Vaiomo'unga R, Kerby T (2006) Submarine volcanoes and high-temperature hydrothermal venting on the Tonga arc, southwest Pacific. Geology 34:453-456
143. Styrikovich MA, Khaibullin IK, Tskhvirashvili DG (1955) Solubility of salts in high-pressure steam. Dokl Akad Nauk 100:1123-6
144. Styrikovich MA, Tskhvirashvili DG, Hebieridze DP (1960) A study of the solubility of boric acid in saturated water vapor. Dokl Akad Nauk 134:615-617
145. Sue K, Arai K (2004) Specific behavior of acid-base and neutralization reactions in supercritical water. J Supercrit Fluid 28:57-68
146. Sverjensky DA, Shock EL, Helgeson HC (1997) Prediction of the thermodynamic properties of aqueous metal complexes to 1000 °C and 5kbar. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:1359-1412
147. 2O: a new equation of state for the near critical region and comparisons with other equations for adjoining regions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 53:973-987
148. Ulrich T, Gunther D, Heinrich CA (1999) Gold concentrations of magmatic brines and the metal budget of porphyry copper deposits. Nature 399:676-679
149. Urusova MA (1974) Phase equilibria in the sodium-hydroxide-water and sodium chloride-water systems at 350-550 °C. Russ J Inorg Chem 19:450-454
150. Urusova MA (1975) Volume properties of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride at elevated temperatures and pressures. Russ J Inorg Chem 20:1717-1721
151. Van Ark EM, Detrick RS, Canales JP, Carbotte SM, Harding AJ, Kent GM, Nedimovic MR, Wilcock WSD, Diebold JB, Babcock JM (2007) Seismic structure of the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Correlations with seismicity and hydrothermal activity. J Geophys Res 112:doi:10.1029/ 2005JB004210
152. Von Damm KL (1995) Controls on the chemistry and temporal variability of seafloor hydrothermal fluids. In: Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biologic and Geologic Interactions, Humphris SE, Zierenberg RA, Mullineaux LS, Thompson RE (eds) Geophys Monogr 91:222-248
153. Von Damm KL (2000) Chemistry of hydrothermal vent fluids from 9°-10° N, East Pacific Rise; "time zero," the immediate posteraptive period. J Geophys Res 105:11203-11222
154. Von Damm KL (2004) Evolution of the hydrothermal system at East Pacific Rise 9°50′N: Geochemical evidence for changes in the upper oceanic crust. In: Mid-Ocean Ridges: Hydrothermal Interactions Between the Lithosphere and Oceans, German CR, Lin J, Parson LM (eds), Geophys Monogr Ser 148:285-304
155. Von Damm KL, Bischoff JL (1987) Chemistry of hydrothermal solutions from the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge. J Geophys Res 92:11334-46
156. Von Damm KL, Bischoff JL, Rosenbauer RJ (1991) Quartz solubility in hydrothermal seawater: an experimental study and equation describing quartz solubility for up to 0.5 M NaCl solutions. Am J Sci 291:977-1007
157. Von Damm KL, Bray AM, Buttermore LG, Oosting SE (1998) The geochemical controls on vent fluids from the Lucky Strike vent field, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Earth Planet Sci Lett 160:521-536
158. Von Damm KL, Buttermore LG, Oosting SE, Bray AM, Fornari DJ, Lilley MD, Shank WC (1997) Direct observation of the evolution of a seafloor 'black smoker' from vapor to brine. Earth Planet Sci Lett 149:101-111
159. Von Damm KL, Lilley MD, Shank WC, Brockington M, Bray AM, O'Grady KM, Olson E, Graham A, Proskurowski G (2003) Extraordinary phase separation and segregation in vent fluids from the southern East Pacific Rise. Earth Planet Sci Lett 206:365-378
160. Von Damm KL, Oosting SE, Kozlowski R, Buttermore LG, Colodner DC, Edmonds HN, Edmond JM, Grebmeier JM (1995) Evolution of East Pacific Rise hydrothermal vent fluids following a volcanic eruption. Nature 375:47-50
161. Webster J, Mandeville C (2007) Fluid immiscibility in volcanic environments. Rev Mineral Geochem 65:313-362
162. Welhan JA, Craig H (1979) Methane and hydrogen in East Pacific Rise hydrothermal fluids. Geophys Res Lett 6:829-831
163. Wilcock WSD, McNabb A (1996) Estimates of crustal permeability on the Endeavour segment of the Juan de Fuca mid-ocean ridge. Earth Planet Sci Lett 138:83-91
164. Wood SA, Crerar D, Brantley SL, Borscsik M (1984) Mean molar stoichiometric activity coefficients of alkali halides and related electrolytes in hydrothermal solutions. Am J Sci 284:668-705
165. Xu WY, Lowell RP (1998) Oscillatory instability of one-dimensional two-phase hydrothermal flow in heterogeneous porous media. J Geophys Res 103:20859-20868