The psychomotor theory of human mind

International Journal of Neuroscience

Volumn 117, Issue 8, 2007, Pages 1109-1148

  Tan, Üner ^a  

^a CUKUROVA UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Brain; Disease; Health; Mind; Motor system; Psyche

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANXIETY DISORDER; BRAIN FUNCTION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; DEPRESSION; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; HEMISPHERE; HEMISPHERIC DOMINANCE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; LEG DISEASE; MEMORY; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL HEALTH; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; MOTONEURON; MOTOR ACTIVITY; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MOTOR NEURON DISEASE; MOTOR SYSTEM; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; NEUROSIS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PERIODIC LIMB MOVEMENT DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT; PYRAMIDAL TRACT; RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SPINAL CORD MOTONEURON;

BRAIN; HUMANS; MIND-BODY RELATIONS (METAPHYSICS); MOVEMENT DISORDERS; PSYCHIATRY; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE;

EID: 34347392285     PISSN: 00207454     EISSN: 15635279     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00207450600934556     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Abrahams, S., Goldstein, L. H., Al-Chalabi, A., Pickering, A., Morris, R. G., Passingham, R. E., Brooks, D. J., & Leigh, P. N. (1997). Relation between cognitive dysfunction and Pseudobulbar palsy in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 62, 464-472.
2. Andreasen, N. C., Paradiso, S., & O'Leary, D. S. (1998). "Cognitive dysmetria" as an integrative theory of schizophrenia: A dysfunction in cortical-subcortical-cerebellar Circuitry. Schizophneia Bulletin, 24, 203-218.
3. Akshoomoff, N. A., & Courchesne, E. (1994). ERP evidence for a shifting attention deficit in patients with damage to the cerebellum. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 6, 388-399.
4. Allain, H., Schuck, S., & Mauduit, N. (2000). Depression in Parkinson's disease. British Medical Journal, 320, 1287-1288.
5. Bak, T. H., & Hodges, J. R. (2001). Motor neuron disease, dementia and aphasia: Coincidence, co-occurrence or continuum? Journal of Neurology, 248, 260-270.
6. Barson, F. P., Kinsella, G. J., Ong, B., & Mathers, S. E. (2000). A neuropsychological investigation of dementia in motor neuron disease (MND). Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 180, 107-113.
7. Bartlett, F. C. (1958). Thinking: An experimental and social study. New York: Basic Books.
8. Bataille, S., Portalier, P., Coulon, P., & Ternaux, J. P. (1998). Influence of acetylcholinesterase on embryonic spinal rat motoneurones growth in culture: A quantitative morphometric study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 10, 560-572.
9. Baum, E. (1995). Multiple personality disorder: A group movement therapy approach. In F. Levy (Ed.), Dance and other expressive art therapies: When words are not enough. (pp. 83-92). New York: Routledge.
10. Berger, B. G. (1984). Running away from anxiety and depression: A female as well as male race. In M. L. Sachs & G. Buffone (Eds.), Running as therapy: An integrated approach. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
11. Bick, P. A., & Kinsbourne, M. (1987). Auditory hallucinations and subvocal speech in schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 222-225.
12. Blackburn, J. (2003). Trager psychophysical integration - an overview. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 7, 233-239.
13. Brosse, A. L., Sheets, E. S., Lett, H. S., & Blumenthal, J. A. (2002). Exercise and the treatment of clinical depression in adults: recent findings and future directions. Sports Medicine, 32, 741-760.
14. Cabanis, P. J. G. (1805). On the relation between the physical and moral aspects of man. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
15. Caligiuri, M., Lohr, J. B., Panton, D., & Harris, J. M. (1993). Extrapyramidal motor abnormalities associated with late-life psychosis. Schizophrenia. Bulletin, 19, 747-754.
16. Caliguiri, M. P., & Lohr, J. B. (1994). A disturbance in the control of muscle force in neuroleptic-naïve schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 104-111.
17. Cantor-Graae, E., McNeil, T. F., Rickler, K. C., Sjostrom, K., Rawlings, R., Higgins, E. S., & Hyde, T. M. (1994). Are neurological abnormalities in well discordant monozygotic co-twins of schizophrenic subjects the result of perinatal trauma American Journl of Psychiatry, 151, 1194-1199.
18. Carpenter, W. B. (1874). Principles of mental physiology, with their applications to the training and discipline of the mind, and the study of its morbid conditions (p. 737). London: Henry S. King & Co.
19. Cassidy, S. L., Adami, H., Moran, M., Kunkel, R., & Thaker, G. V. (1998). Spontaneous Dyskinesia in subjects with schizophrenia spectrum personality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 70-75.
20. Cerny, M. (1965). On neurophysiological mechanisms in verbal hallucinations: An electrophysiological study. Activitas Nervosa Superior (Prague), 7, 197-198.
21. Cohen, S. O., & Walco, G. A. (1999). Dance/movement therapy for children and adolescents with cancer. Cancer Practice, 7, 34-42.
22. Cooper, P. N., Jackson, M., Lennox, G., Lowe, J., & Mann, D. M. (1995). Tau, ubiquitin, and Alpha B-crystalin immunohistochemistry define the principal causes of degenerative Frontotemporal dementia. Archive of Neurology, 52, 1011-1015.
23. Crow, T. J. (1990). Temporal lobe asymmetries as the key to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 433-443.
24. Davis, R. C. (1937). The relation of certain muscle action potentials to "mental work." Science series No. 5. Indiana University Publications, Indiana, pp. 5-29.
25. Dayi, E., Gungormus, M., Okuyan, M., & Tan, Ü. (2002). Predictability of hand skill and cognitive abilities from craniofacial width in right- and left-handed men and women: Relation of skeletal structure to cerebral function. International Journal of Neuroscience, 112, 383-412.
26. DeLong, M. R. (1990). Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends in the Neurosciences, 13, 281-185.
27. Dimeo, F., Bauer, M., Varahram, I., Proest, G., & Halter, U. (2001). Benefits from aerobic exercise in patients with major depression: A pilot study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 35, 114-117.
28. Doris, A., Ebmeier, K., & Shajahan, P. (1999). Depressive illness. Lancet, 354, 1369-1375.
29. Dunn, A. L., Trivedi, M. H., & O'Neal, H. A. (2001). Physical activity dose-response effects on outcomes of depression and anxiety. Medical Science for Sports and Exercise, 33, 587-597.
30. Ebmeir, K. P., Potter, D. D., & Cochrane, R.H. (1992). Event-related potentials, reaction time and cognitive performance in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Biological Psychology, 33, 73-89.
31. Eccles, J. (1975). Facing reality: philosophical adventures of a brain scientist (p. 174). New York: Springer Verlag.
32. Eccles, J. C. (1977). My scientific odyssey. Annual Review of Physiology, 39, 1-8.
33. Eccles, J. C., & Popper, K. R. (1977). The self and its brain. An argument for interactionism (p. 355). Berlin, New York: Springer International.
34. Eckstein, D., & Keeling, G. (1991). Principles of health from eastern disciplines are finding their way into Western workouts: East meets West. IDEA Today, 10, 47-50.
35. Egan, M. F., Hyde, T. M., Bonomo, J. H., Mattay, V. S., Bigelow, L. H., Goldberg, T. E., & Weinberger, D. R. (2001). Relative risk in neurological signs in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1827-1834.
36. Ernst, E., Rand, J. I., & Stevinson, C. (1998). Complementary therapies for depression: An overview. Archive of General Psychiatry, 55, 1026-1032.
37. Evans, J. B. (2003). In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454-459.
38. Fischer, K. W., & Bidell, T. R. (1998). Dynamic development of psychological structures in action and thought. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol.1: Theoretical models of human development. (pp. 467-561). New York: Wiley.
39. Flourens, M-. J-. P. (1824). Investigations of the properties and functions of the various parts which compose the cerebral mass (pp. 85-122). Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher.
40. Gandevia, S. C. (1994). Peripheral and central correlates of attempted voluntary movements (pp. 208-209). Commentary on Jeannerod, M. The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 187-245.
41. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
42. Gold, I., & Stoljar, D. (1999). A neuron doctrine in the philosophy of neuroscience. Behavioral and Brain Science, 22, 809-869.
43. Goldstein, I. B. (1964). Physiological responses in anxious women patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 10, 382-388.
44. Greenfield, S., & Vaux, D. J. (2002). Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and motor neurone disease: Identifying a common mechanism. Neuroscience, 113, 485-492.
45. Gupta, S., Adreasen, N. C., Arndt, S., Flaum, M., Schultz, S. K., Hubbard, W. C., & Smith, M. (1995). Neurological soft signs in neuroleptic-naïve and neuroleptic treated schizophrenic patients and in normal comparison subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 191-196.
46. Haase, J., & Tan, Ü. (1965). Die excitatorischen Wirkungen von Desoxyephedrine (Pervitin) Auf die tonische spinalmotorik der Katze. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Exp. Path. Pharmak., 252, 20-31.
47. Hans, S. L., Nuechterlein, K. H., Asarnow, R. F., Styr, B., & Auerbach, J. G. (1999). Neurobehavioral deficits at adolescence in children at risk for schizophrenia: The Jerusalem infant development study. Archive of General Psychiatry, 56, 741-748.
48. Heinrichs, D. W., & Buchanan, R. W. (1988). Significance and meaning of neurological signs in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 11-18.
49. Hazlett, R. L., McLeod, D. R., & Hoehn-Saric, R. (1994). Muscle tension in generalized anxiety disorder: Elevated muscle tonus or agitated movement? Psychophysiology, 31, 189-195.
50. Hebb, D. O. (1980). Essay on mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
51. Hinshaw, K. E. (1992). The effects of mental practice on motor skills performance: Critical evaluation and meta-analysis. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 11, 3-25.
52. Holton, J. L., Revesz, T., Crooks, R., & Scaravilli, F. (2002). Evidence for pathological involvement of the spinal cord in motor neuron disease-inclusion dementia. Acta Neuropathologia, 103, 221-227.
53. Holzman, P. S. (2000). Eye movements and the search for the essence of schizophrenia. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 350-356.
54. Inouye, T., & Shimizu, A. (1970). The electromyographic study of verbal hallucination. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 151, 415-422.
55. Ismail, B., Cantor-Graae, E., & McNeil, T. F. (1998). Neurological abnormalities in Schizophrenic patients and their siblings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 84-89.
56. Ito, M. (1993). Movement and thought: Identical controlmechanisms by the cerebellum. Trends in the Neurosciences, 16, 448-450.
57. Ito, T., Hokezu, Y., Mori, T., Watanabe, O., & Nagamatsu, K. (2001). A case of motor Neuron disease with presenil dementia showing bilateral degeneration of the pyramidal Tract on cranial MRI. Rinsho Shinkeigaku, 41, 60-63.
58. Jackson, J. H. (1873). Clinical and physiological researches on the nervous system (reprints) No. 1 - On the localization of movements in the brain (p. 21). Lancet.
59. Kant, I. (1871). (Translated by J. M. D. Meiklejohn). Critiques of pure reason (p. 69). EBooks & Adelaide, 2004.
60. Kern, D., & Baker, J. (1997). A comparison of a mind/body approach versus a conventional approach to aerobic dance. Women's Health Issue, 7, 30-37.
61. Kinney, D. K., Woods, B. T., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (1986). Neurologic abnormalities in Schizophrenic patients and their families: II. Neurologic and psychiatric findings in relatives. Archive of General Psychiatry, 43, 665-668.
62. Kraepelin, E. (1919). Dementia praecox and paraphenia. Edinburgh: Livingstone.
63. Laban, R. (1975). Modern educational dance. 3rd edn. Boston: Plays, Inc.
64. Laban, R., & Lawrence, F. C. (1974). Effort: Economy of human movement. 2nd edn. Boston: Plays, Inc.
65. Lawlor, D. A., & Hopker, S. W. (2001). The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized trials. British Medical Journal, 322, 763-767.
66. Leiner, H. C., Leiner, A. L., & Dow, R. S. (1986). Does the cerebellum contribute to mental skill? Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 443-454.
67. Leiner, H. C., Leiner, A. L., & Dow, R. S. (1989). Reappraising the cerebellum: What does the hind brain contribute to the forebrain? Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 998-1008.
68. Leste, A., & Rust, J. (1990). Effects of dance on anxiety. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 12, 19-26.
69. Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D. P., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967). Perception of the speech code. Psychological Review, 74, 431-461.
70. MacDonald, J. (1992). Dance? In H. Payne (Ed.), Dance movement therapy: Theory and practice. (pp. 202-217). London: Routledge.
71. Malmo, R. B., & Malmo, H. P. (2000). On electromyographic (EMG) gradients and movement-related brain activity: significance for motor control, cognitive functions, and certain psychopathologies. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 38, 143-207.
72. Malmo, R. B., Shagass, C., & Davis, J. F. (1951). Electromyographic studies of muscle Tension in psychiatric patients under stress. J. Clinical and Experimental Psychopathology, 12, 45-66.
73. Manschreck, T. C., Keuthen, N. J., Schneyer, M. L., Celada, M. T., Laughery, J., & Collins, P. (1990). Abnormal involuntary movements and chronic schizophrenic disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 150-158.
74. Massman, P. J., Kreiter, K. T., Jankovic, J., & Doody, R. S. (1996). Neuropsychological functioning in cortico-basal ganglionic degeneration: Differentiation from Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 46, 720-726.
75. McDonald, W. M., Richard, I. H., & DeLong, M. R. (2003). Prevalence, etiology, and treatment of depression in Parkinson's diseas. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 363-375.
76. McGuigan, F. J. (1966). Covert oral behavior and auditory hallucinations. Psychophysiology, 3, 73-80.
77. McNeil, T. F., Cantor-Graae, E., & Blennov, G. (2003). Mental correlates of neuromotoric deviation in 6-year-olds at heightened risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 60, 219-228.
78. Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (1994). Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science, 266, 458-461.
79. Mikhailova, E. S., Viadimirova, T. V., Iznak, A. F., Tsusulkovskaya, E. J., & Sushko, N. V. (1996). Abnormal recognition of facial expression of emotions in depressed patients with major depression disorder and schizotypal personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 697-705.
80. Miller, E. N., Fujioka, T. A., Chapman, L., & Chapman, J. (1995). Hemispheric asymmetries of function in patients with major affective disorders. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 29, 173-183.
81. Moore, K. A., & Blumenthal, J. A. (1998). Exercise training as an alternative treatment for depression among older adults. Alternative Therapy and Health Medicine, 4, 48-56.
82. Moretti, R., Torre, P., Antonello, R. M., De Masi, R., & Cazzato, G. (2001). Complex cognitive disruption in frontal dementia related to motor neuron disease. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 1213-1229.
83. Murray-Lane, M. B. (1995). Walls of addiction. In F. Levy (Ed.), Dance and other expressive art therapies: When words are not enough. (pp. 93-100). New York: Routledge.
84. Neidig, J. L., Smith, B. A., & Brashers, D. E. (2003). Aerobic exercise training for depressive symptom management in adults living with HIV infection. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 14, 30-40.
85. Neumann, C. S., & Walker, E. F. (1999). Motor dysfunction in schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 38, 159-168.
86. Ogles, B. M., Lynn, S. J., Masters, K. S., Hoefel, T. D., & Marsden, K. (1994). Runner's cognitive strategies and motivations: Absorption, fantasy style, and dissociative experiences. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 13, 163-174.
87. Paillard, J. (1955). Reflexes et regulations d'origine proprioceptive chez l'homme. (pp. 293). Paris: Libraire Arnette.
88. Penfield, W. (1975). The mystery of the mind (p. xiii). Princeton, NJ: University Press.
89. Popper, K. (1935). Logik der forschung (p. 31). Vienna: Julius Springer Verlag.
90. Popper, K., & Eccles, J. C. (1977). The self and its brain, p. 283. Berlin, New York: Springer Verlag International.
91. Portet, F., Cadilhac, C., Touchon, J., & Camu, W. (2001). Cognitive impairment in motor neuron disease with bulbar onset. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Other Motor Neuron Disorders, 2, 23-29.
92. Porto, L., Bermanzohn, P. C., Pollack, S., Morissey, R., & Siris, S. G. (1997). A profile of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia. CNS Spectrums, 2, 21-25.
93. Poyurovsky, M., Hramenkov, S., Isakov, V., Rauchverger, B., Modai, I., Schneidman, M., Fuchs, C., & Weizman, A. (2001). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in hospitalized patientswith chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 102, 49-57.
94. Quinn, J., Meagher, D., Murphy, P., Kinsella, A., Mullaney, J., & Waddington, J. L. (2001). Vulnerability to involuntary movements over a life time trajectory of schizophrenia approaches 100%, in association with excessive (frontal) dysfunction. Schizophrenia Research, 49, 79-87.
95. Ranoux, D. (2000). Depression et maladie de Parkinson. Encephale, 26, 22-26.
96. Rossi, A., Cataldo, S., Di Michele, V., Manna, V., Ceccoli, S., Stratta, A., & Casachia, M. (1990). Neurological soft signs in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 735-739.
97. Rose, S. (1995). Movement as metaphor: Treating chemical addiction. In F. Levy (Ed.), Dance and other expressive art therapies: When words are not enough. (pp. 101-108). New York: Routledge.
98. Sailsbury, D. F., Voglmaier, M. M., Seidman, L. J., & MacCarley, R. W. (1996). Topographical abnormalities of P3 in schizotypal personality disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 165-172.
99. Sainbury, P., & Gibson, J. G. (1954). Symptoms of anxiety and tension and the accompanying physiological changes in the muscular system. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 17, 216-224.
100. Saletu, B., Anderer, P., Saletu, M., Hauer, C., Lindeck-Pozza, L., & Saletu-Zyhlarz, G. (2002). EEG mapping, psychometric, and polysomnographic studies in restless leg syndrome (RLS) and periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD) patients as compared with normal subjects. Sleep Medicine, 3, S35-S42.
101. Schmidt, M. L., Zhukareva, V., Perl, D. P., Sheridan, S. K., Schuck, T., Lee, V., & Trojanowski, J. Q. (2001). Spinal cord neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer disease and Guam Parkinsonism-dementia complex. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 60, 1075-1086.
102. Schroeder, J., Niethammer, R., Geider, F. J., Reitz, C., Binkert, M., Jauss, M., & Sauer, H. (1992). Neurological soft signs in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 6, 25-30.
103. Sherrington, C. (1953). Man on his nature (p. 248). New York: Doubleday.
104. Sherrington, C. S. (1940). Man on his nature (p. 287). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
105. Seitz, J. A. (2000). The bodily basis of thought. New Ideas in Psychology, 18, 23-40.
106. Silbersweig, D. A., Stern, E., Frith, C., Canill, C., Holmes, A., Grootoonk, S., Seaward, J., McKenna, P., Chua, S. E., & Schnorr, L. (1995). A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Nature, 378, 176-179.
107. Spencer, H. (1855). The principles of psychology (p. 620). London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
108. Sperry, R. W. (1952). Neurology and the mind-brain problem. Am. Sci., 40, 291-312.
109. Sperry, R. W. (1980). Mind-body interactions: mentalism, yes; dualism, no. Neuroscience, 5, pp. 265-270.
110. Sudo, S., Fukutani, Y., Matsubara, R., Sasaki, K., Shiozawa, M., Wada, Y., Naiki, H., & Isaki, K. (2002). Motor neuron disease with dementia combined with degeneration of striatonigral and pallidoluysian system. Acta Neuropathologia, 103, 521-525.
111. Tan, Ü. (1989a). The Hoffmann reflex from the flexor pollicis longus of the thumb in left-handed subjects: Spinal motor asymmetry and supraspinal facilitation to Cattell's intelligence test. International Journal of Neuroscience, 48, 255-269.
112. Tan, Ü. (1989b). Right and left hand skill in left-handers: Distribution, learning, and relation to nonverbal intelligence. International Journal of Neuroscience, 44, 235-249.
113. Tan, Ü. (1989c). Manual proficiency in Cattell's Intelligence Test in left-handed male and female subjects. International Journal of Neuroscience, 44, 17-26.
114. Tan, Ü. (1990). Relation of hand skill to spatial reasoning in male and female lefthanders with left- and right-hand writing. International Journal of Neuroscience, 53, 121-133.
115. Tan, Ü. (1991). The inverse relationship between nonverbal intelligence and the latency of the Hoffmann reflex from the right and left thenar muscles in right- and left-handed subjects. International Journal of Neuroscience, 57, 219-238.
116. Tan, Ü. (1996). Correlations between nonverbal intelligence and peripheral nerve conduction velocity in right-handed subjects: Sex-related differences. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 22, 123-128.
117. Tan, Ü., & Gurgen, F. (1986). Modulation of spinal motor asymmetry by neuroleptic medication of schizophrenia patients. International Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 165-172.
118. Tan, Ü., & Henatsch, H. D. (1969).Wirkungen von imipramin auf die spinalmotorischen Extensor- und flexor-systeme der Katze. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Archieve fuer. Pharmakologie und Experimental Pathologie, 262, 337-357.
119. Tan, Ü., Okuyan, M., Albayrak, T., & Akgun, A. (2003). Sex difference in verbal and spatial ability reconsidered in relation to body size, lung volume, and sex hormones. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 96, 1347-1360.
120. Tigges, P., Mergl, R., Frodl, T., Meisenzahl, E. M., Gallinat, J., Schroter, A., Riedel, M., Muller, N., Moller, H. J., & Hegerl, U. (2000). Digitized analysis of abnormal hand-motor performance in schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Research, 45, 133-143.
121. Trojanowski, J. Q., Ishihara, T., Higuchi, M., Yoshiyama, Y., Hong, M., Zhang, B., Forman, M. S., Zhukareva, V., & Lee, V. M. (2002). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/ parkinsonism dementia complex: Transgenic mice provide insights into mechanisms underlying a common taupathy in an ethnic minority on Guam. Experimental Neurology, 176, 1-11.
122. Tyndall, J. (1871). Fragments of science for unscientific people: A series of detached Essays, lectures, and reviews (pp. 119-120). London: Longmans Green and Co.
123. Uttal, W. R. (2001). The new phrenology..: Bradford Books, MIT Press.
124. Vrtunski, P. B., Simpson, D. M., & Meltzer, H. Y. (1989). Voluntary movement dysfunction in schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 25, 529-539.
125. Walker, E. (1994). The developmentally moderated expression of the neuropathology underlying schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 453-480.
126. Walker, E. F., & Lewine, R. J. (1990). Prediction of adult-onset schizophrenia from childhood home-movies of the patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1052-1056.
127. Walker, E. F., Savoie, T., & Davis, D. (1994). Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 441-455.
128. Wallace, R. K., Orme-Johnson, D. W., Mills, P. J., & Dillbeck, M. C. (1984). Academic achievement and the paired Hoffman reflex in students practicing meditation. International Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 261-266.
129. Westbrook, B. K., & McKibben, H. (1989). Dance/movement therapy with groups of outpatients with Parkinson's disease. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 11, 27-38.
130. Willingham, D. B. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 105, 558-584.
131. Wilson, C. M., Brace, G. M., Munoz, D. G., He, B. P., & Strong, M. J. (2001). Cognitive impairment in sporadic ALS: A pathologic continuum underlying a multisystem disorder. Neurology, 28, 651-657.
132. Wilson, E. O. (1998). The hand: How its use shapes the brain, language, and human culture. New York: Random House.
133. Woods, B. T., Kinney, D. K., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (1986). Neurologic abnormalities in schizophrenic patients and their families: 1. Comparison of schizophrenic, bipolar, and substance abuse patients and normal controls. Archive of General Psychiatry, 43, 657-663.
134. Woolf, N. J. (1996). Global and serial neurons from a hierarchically arranged interface Proposed to underlie memory and cognition. Neuroscience, 74, 625-651.