A Neuropsychological Theory of Motor Skill Learning

Psychological Review

Volumn 105, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 558-584

  Willingham, Daniel B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMNESIA; BRAIN; COGNITION; HUMAN; LEARNING; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

AMNESIA; BRAIN; COGNITION; HUMANS; LEARNING; MOTOR SKILLS; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS;

EID: 0032116811     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.105.3.558     Document Type: Article

References (260)

1. Adams, J. A. (1971). A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3, 111-149.
2. Adams, J. A. (1986). Use of the model's knowledge of results to increase the observer's performance. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 12, 89-98.
3. Agostino, R., Berardelli, A., Formica, A., Accomero, N., & Manfredi, M. (1992). Sequential arm movements in patients with Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and dystonia. Brain, 115, 1481-1495.
4. Agostino, R., Berardelli, A., Formica, A., Stocchi, F., Accornero, N., & Manfredi, M. (1994). Analysis of repetitive and nonrepetitive sequential arm movements in patients with Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 9, 311-314.
5. Agostino, R., Sanes, J. N., & Hallett, M. (1996). Motor skill learning in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 139, 218-226.
6. Akshoomoff, N. A., & Courchesne, E. (1994). ERP evidence for a shifting attention deficit in patients with damage to the cerebellum. Journal of Cognitive Neurosciences, 6, 388-399.
7. Albus, J. S. (1971). A theory of cerebellar cortex. Mathematical Biosciences, 10, 25-61.
8. Allen, G., Buxton, R. B., Wong, E. C., & Courchesne, E. (1997). Attentional activation of the cerebellum independent of motor involvement. Science, 275, 1940-1943.
9. Andersen, R. A. (1987). Inferior parietal lobule function in spatial perception and visual motor integration. In F. Plum & S. Geiger (Eds.), Handbook of physiology, Sect. 1: The nervous system (pp. 483-518). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.
10. Appollonio, I. M., Grafman, J., Schwartz, V., Massaquoi, S., & Hallett, M. (1993). Memory in patients with cerebellar degeneration. Neurology, 43, 1536-1544.
11. Arnold, S. E., Hyman, B. T., Flory, J., Damasio, A. R., & Van Hoesen, G. W. (1991). The topographical and neuroanatomical distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques in the cerebral cortex of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Cerebral Cortex, 1, 103-116.
12. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
13. Bard, C., Fleury, M., & Paillard, J. (1990). Different patterns in aiming accuracy for head-movers and non-head-movers. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 18, 37-48.
14. Barone, P., & Joseph, J. P. (1989). Role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in organizing visually guided behavior. Brain Behavior and Evolution, 33, 132-135.
15. Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 610-620.
16. Baumeister, R. F., & Showers, C. J. (1986). A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 361-383.
17. Bedford, F. L. (1989). Constraints on learning new mappings between perceptual dimensions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15, 232-248.
18. Benecke, R., Rothwell, J. C., Dick, J. P. R., Day, B. L., & Marsden, C. D. (1987). Disturbance of sequential movements in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain, 110, 361-379.
19. Berns, G. S., Cohen, J. D., & Mintun, M. A. (1997). Brain regions responsive to novelty in the absence of awareness. Science, 276, 1272-1275.
20. Bizzi, E., Giszter, S. F., Loeb, E., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Saltiel, P. (1995). Modular organization of motor behavior in the frog's spinal cord. Trends in Neurosciences, 18, 442-446.
21. Bizzi, E., Hogan, N., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Giszter, S. (1992). Does the nervous system use equilibrium-point control to guide single and multiple joint movements? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 603-613.
22. Bizzi, E., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Giszter, S. (1991). Computations underlying the execution of movement: A biological perspective. Science, 253, 287-291.
23. Blandin, Y., Proteau, L., & Alain, C. (1994). On the cognitive processes underlying contextual interference and observational learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 26, 18-26.
24. Blouin, J., Bard, C., Teasdale, N., Paillard, J., Fleury, M., Forget, R., & Lamarre, Y. (1993). Reference systems for coding spatial information in normal subjects and a deafferented patient. Experimental Brain Research, 93, 324-331.
25. Bond, C. F., Jr., & Titus, L. J. (1983). Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 265-292.
26. Bondi, M. W., & Kaszniak, A. W. (1991). Implicit and explicit memory in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 339-358.
27. Bracke-Tolkmitt, R., Linden, A., Canavan, A. G. M., Rockstroh, B., Scholz, E., Wessel, K., & Diener, H. C. (1989). The cerebellum contributes to mental skills. Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 442-446.
28. Bradshaw, J. L., Phillips, J. G., Dennis, C., Mattingley, J. B., Andrewes, D., Chiu, E., Pierson, J. M., & Bradshaw, J. A. (1992). Initiation and execution of movement sequences in those suffering from and at risk of developing Huntington's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 179-192.
29. Brandt, J., & Butters, N. (1986). The neuropsychology of Huntington's disease. Trends in Neurosciences, 9, 118-120.
30. Bridgeman, B. (1991). Complementary cognitive and motor image processing. In G. Obreght & L. W. Stark (Eds.), Presbyopia research: From molecular biology to visual adaptation (pp. 189-198). New York: Plenum.
31. Brooks, V., Hilperath, F., Brooks, M., Ross, H.-G., & Freund, H.-J. (1995). Learning "what" and "how" in a human motor task. Learning and Memory, 2, 225-242.
32. Caminiti, R., Johnson, P. B., & Urbano, A. (1990). Making arm movements within different parts of space: Dynamic aspects in the primate motor cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 10, 2039-2058.
33. Canavan, A. G. M., Passingham, R. E., Marsden, C. D., Quinn, N., Wyke, M., & Polkey, C. E. (1990). Prism adaptation and other tasks involving spatial abilities in patients with Parkinson's disease, patients with frontal lobe lesions, and patients with unilateral temporal lobectomies. Neuropsychologia, 28, 969-984.
34. Carroll, W. R., & Bandura, A. (1982). The role of visual monitoring in observational learning of action patterns: Making the unobservable observable. Journal of Motor Behavior, 14, 153-167.
35. Chang, M.-H., Liao, K.-K., Cheung, S.-C., Kong, K.-W., & Chang, S.-P. (1992). "Numb, clumsy hands" and tactile agnosia secondary to high cervical spondylotic myelopathy: A clinical and electrophysiological correlation. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 86, 622-625.
36. Cleermans, A. (1993). Mechanisms of implicit learning: Connectionist models of sequence learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37. Clower, D. M., Hoffman, J. M., Votaw, J. R., Faber, T. L., Woods, R. P., & Alexander, G. E. (1996). Role of posterior parietal cortex in the recalibration of visually guided reaching. Nature, 383, 618-621.
38. Cohen, A., Ivry, R. I., & Keele, S. W. (1990). Attention and structure in sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 17-30.
39. Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Pascual-Leone, A., & Hallett, M. (1993). Plasticity of cortical motor output organization following deafferentation, cerebral lesions, and skill acquisition. In O. Devinsky, A. Beric, & M. Dogali (Eds.), Electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain and spinal cord. New York: Raven Press.
40. Cohen, M. M. (1967). Continuous versus terminal visual feedback in prism aftereffects. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 1295-1302.
41. Courchesne, E., Townsend, J., Akshoomoff, N. A., Saitoh, O., Yeung-Courchesne, R., Lincoln, A. J., James, H. E., Haas, R. H., Schreibman, L., & Lau, L. (1994). Impairment in shifting attention in autistic and cerebellar patients. Behavioral Neuroscience, 108, 848-865.
42. Crossman, E. R. F. W., & Goodeve, P. J. (1983). Feedback control of hand-movement and Fitts' Law. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35A, 251-278. (Original work published 1963)
43. Curran, T. (1995). On the neural mechanisms of sequence learning. Psyche [On-line serial] 2. Available World Wide Web: http://psyche. cs.monash,edu.au/volume2-1/psyche-95-2-12-sequence-1-curran.html.
44. Curran, T. (1997). Implicit sequence learning from a cognitive neuroscience perspective: What, how, and where? In M. Stadler & P. Frensch (Eds.), Handbook of Implicit Learning (pp. 365-400). New York: Sage.
45. Curran, T., & Keele, S. W. (1993). Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 188-202.
46. Daum, I., & Ackerman, H. (1995). Cerebellar contributions to cognition. Behavioural Brain Research, 67, 201-210.
47. Deiber, M. P., Passingham, R. E., Colebatch, J. G., Friston, K. J., Nixon, P. D., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991). Cortical areas and the selection of movement: A study with positron emission tomography. Experimental Brain Research, 84, 393-402.
48. De Renzi, E., Faglioni, P., Lodesani, M., & Vecchi, A. (1983). Performance of left brain-damaged patients on imitation of single movements and motor sequences. Frontal and parietal-injured patients compared. Cortex, 19, 333-343.
49. Deuel, R. K. (1977). Loss of motor habits after cortical lesions. Neuropsychologia, 15, 205.
50. Deuel, R. K., & Dunlop, N. L. (1979). Role of frontal polysensory cortex in guidance of limb movements. Brain Research, 169, 183-188.
51. Deuschl, G., Toro, C., Zeffiro, T., Massaquoi, S., & Hallett, M. (1996). Adaptation motor learning of arm movements in patients with cerebellar disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 60, 515-519.
52. Deweer, B., Ergis, A. M., Fossati, P., Pillon, B., Bollwer, F., Agid, Y., & Dubois, B. (1994). Explicit memory, procedural learning and lexical priming in Alzheimer's disease. Cortex, 30, 113-126.
53. Dick, J. P. R., Benecke, R., Rothwell, J. C., Day, B. L., & Marsden, C. D. (1986). Simple and complex movements in a patient with infarction of the right supplementary motor area. Movement Disorders, 1, 255-266.
54. Dick, M. B., Nielson, K. A., Beth, R. E., Shankle, W. R., & Cotman, C. W. (1995). Acquisition and long-term retention of a fine motor skill in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Cognition, 294-306.
55. Dominey, P. (1998). Influences of temporal organization on sequence learning and transfer: Comments on Stadler (1995) and Curran and Keele (1993). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 234-248.
56. Dominey, P., Arbib, M., & Joseph, J.-P. (1995). A model of corticostriatal plasticity for learning oculomotor associations and sequences. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 7, 311-336.
57. Doyon, J., Owen, A. M., Petrides, M., Sziklas, V., & Evans, A. C. (1996). Functional anatomy of visuomotor skill learning in human subjects examined with positron emission tomography. European Journal of Neuroscience, 8, 637-648.
58. Drewe, E. A. (1974). The effect of type and area of brain lesions on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance. Cortex, 10, 159-170.
59. Driskell, J. E., Copper, C., & Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 481-492.
60. Duncan, J. (1986). Disorganisation of behaviour after frontal lobe damage. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 3, 271-290.
61. Easterbrook, J. A. (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. Psychological Review, 66, 183-201.
62. Elbert, T., Pantev, C., Wienbruch, C., Rockstroh, B., & Taub, E. (1995). Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science, 270, 305-307.
63. Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. (1986). Preserved motor learning in Alzheimer's disease: Implications for anatomy and behavior. Journal of Neuroscience, 6, 3006-3009.
64. Fagg, A. H., & Arbib, M. A. (1992). A model of primate visual-motor conditional learning. Journal of Adaptive Behavior, 1, 3-37.
65. Fendrich, D. W., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E., Jr. (1991). Long-term repetition effects for motoric and perceptual procedures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 137-151.
66. Ferraro, F. R., Balota, D. A., & Connor, L. T. (1993). Implicit memory and the formation of new associations in nondemented Parkinson's disease individuals and individuals with senile dementia of the Alzheimer type: A serial reaction time (SRT) investigation. Brain and Cognition, 21, 163-180.
67. Fiez, J. A. (1996). Cerebellar contributions to cognition. Neuron, 16, 13-15.
68. Fiez, J. A., Petersen, S. E., Cheney, M. K., & Raichle, M. E. (1992). Impaired non-motor learning and error detection associated with cerebellar damage. Brain, 115, 155-178.
69. Fitts, P. M. (1964). Perceptual-motor skill learning. In A. W. Melton (Ed.), Categories of human learning (pp. 243-285). New York: Academic Press.
70. Flowers, K. (1978). Some frequency response characteristics of Parkinsonism on pursuit tracking. Brain, 101, 19-34.
71. Forssberg, H., Johnels, B., & Steg, G. (1984). Is Parkinsonian gait caused by a regression to an immature walking pattern? Advances in Neurology, 40, 375-379.
72. Frensch, P. A., Buchner, A., & Lin, J. (1994). Implicit learning of unique and ambiguous serial transitions in the presence and absence of a distractor task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 423-442.
73. Frensch, P. A., & Miner, C. (1994). Effects of presentation rate and individual differences in short-term memory capacity on an indirect measure of serial learning. Memory and Cognition, 22, 95-110.
74. Freund, H.-J. (1985). Clinical aspects of premotor function. Behavioural Brain Research, 18, 187-191.
75. Friston, K. J., Frith, C. D., Passingham, R. E., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1992). Motor practice and neurophysiological adaptation in the cerebellum: A positron tomography study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 248, B, 223-228.
76. Frith, C. D., Bloxham, C. A., & Carpenter, K. N. (1986). Impairments in the learning and performance of a new manual skill in patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 49, 661-668.
77. Frith, C. D., Friston, K., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991). Willed action and the prefrontal cortex in man: A study with PET. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 244, 241-246.
78. Gabrieli, J. D. E. (in press). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annual Review of Psychology.
79. Gabrieli, J. D. E., Corkin, S., Mickel, S. F., & Growdon, J. H. (1993). Intact acquisition and long-term retention of mirror-tracing skill in Alzheimer's disease and in global amnesia. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 899-910.
80. Gabrieli, J. D. E., Singh, J., Stebbins, G. T., & Goetz, C. G. (1996). Reduced working-memory span in Parkinson's disease: Evidence for the role of a fronto-striatal system in working and strategic memory. Neuropsychology, 10, 322-332.
81. Gabrieli, J. D. E., Stebbins, G. T., Singh, J., Willingham, D. B., & Goetz, C. G. (1997). Impaired rotary-pursuit and intact mirror-tracing skill learning in patients with Huntington's disease: Evidence for dissociable skill learning memory systems. Neuropsychology, 11, 272-281.
82. Gao, J.-H., Parsons, L. M., Bower, J. M., Xiong, J., Li, J., & Fox, P. T. (1996). Cerebellum implicated in sensory acquisition and discrimination rather than motor control. Science, 272, 545-547.
83. Gauthier, G. M., Hofferer, J.-M., Hoyt, W. F., & Stark, L. (1979). Visual-motor adaptation: Quantitative demonstration in patients with posterior fossa involvement. Archives of Neurology, 36, 155-160.
84. Gaymard, B., Pierrot-Deseilligny, C., & Rivaud, S. (1990). Impairment of sequences of memory-guided saccades after supplementary motor area lesions. Annals of Neurology, 28, 622-626.
85. Georgopoulos, A. P., Kalaska, J. F., Caminiti, R., & Massey, J. T. (1982). On the relations between the direction of two-dimensional arm movements and cell discharge in primary motor cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 2, 1527-1537.
86. Georgopoulos, A. P., Kalaska, J. F., & Massey, J. T. (1981). Spatial trajectories and reaction times of aimed movements: Effects of practice, uncertainty, and change in target location. Journal of Neuroscience, 46, 725-743.
87. Georgopoulos, A. P., Kettner, R. E., & Schwartz, A. B. (1988). Primate motor cortex and free arm movements to visual targets in three-dimensional space. II. Coding of the direction of arm movement by a neural population. Journal of Neuroscience, 8, 2928-2937.
88. Georgopoulos, A. P., Schwartz, A. B., & Kettner, R. E. (1986). Neuronal population coding of movement direction. Science, 233, 1416-1419.
89. Giszter, S. F., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Bizzi, E. (1993). Convergent force fields organized in frog's spinal cord. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 467-491.
90. Godschalk, M., Lemon, R. N., Kuypers, H. G. J. M., & Van der Steen, J. (1985). The involvement of monkey premotor cortex neurones in preparation of visually cued arm movements. Behavioural Brain Research, 18, 143-157.
91. Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1995). Architecture of the prefrontal cortex and the central executive. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 769, 71-83.
92. Goodale, M. A., & Milner, A. D. (1992). Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends in Neurosciences, 15, 20-25.
93. Grafman, J., Litvan, I., Massaquoi, S., Steward, M., Sirigu, A., & Hallet, M. (1992). Cognitive planning deficit in patients with cerebellar atrophy. Neurology, 42, 1493-1496.
94. Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., & Ivry, R. (1995). Localization of independent cortical systems in human motor learning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 7, 497-510.
95. Grafton, S. T., Mazziotta, J. C., Presty, S., Friston, K. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Phelps, M. E. (1992). Functional anatomy of human procedural learning determined with regional cerebral blood flow and PET. Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 2542-2548.
96. Grafton, S. T., Woods, R. P., & Tyszka, M. (1994). Functional imaging of procedural motor learning: Relating cerebral blood flow with individual subject performance. Human Brain Mapping, 1, 221-234.
97. Granholm, E., Bartzokis, G., Asarnow, R. F., & Marder, S. R. (1993). Preliminary associations between motor procedural learning, basal ganglia T2 relaxation times, and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 50, 33-44.
98. Graziano, M. S. A., Yap, G. S., & Gross, C. G. (1994). Coding of visual space by premotor neurons. Science, 266, 1054-1057.
99. Growdon, J. H., & Corkin, S. (1986). Cognitive impairments in Parkinson's disease. In M. D. Yahr & K. J. Bergman (Eds.), Advances in Neurology (383-392). New York: Raven Press.
100. Halsband, U., & Freund, H.-J. (1990). Premotor cortex and conditional motor learning in man. Brain, 113, 207-222.
101. Halsband, U., & Freund, H.-J. (1993). Motor learning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 3, 940-949.
102. Halsband, U., Ito, N., Tanji, J., & Freund, H.-J. (1993). The role of premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area in the temporal control of movement in man. Brain, 116, 243-266.
103. Halsband, U., Matsuzaka, Y., & Tanji, J. (1994). Neuronal activation in the primate supplementary, pre-supplementary and premotor cortex during externally and internally instructed sequential movements. Neuroscience Research, 20, 149-155.
104. Halsband, U., & Passingham, R. E. (1982). The role of premotor and parietal cortex in the direction of action. Brain Research, 240, 368-372.
105. Harrington, D. L., & Haaland, K. Y. (1991). Sequencing in Parkinson's disease: Abnormalities in programming and controlling movement. Brain, 114, 99-115.
106. Harrington, D. L., & Haaland, K. Y. (In press). Sequencing and timing operations of the basal ganglia. In D. Rosenbaum & C. Collyer (Eds.), Timing of behavior: Neural, computational, and psychological perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
107. Harrington, D. L., Haaland, K. Y., Yeo, R. A., & Marder, E. (1990). Procedural memory in Parkinson's disease: Impaired motor but not visuoperceptual learning. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 323-339.
108. Heindel, W. C., Butters, N., & Salmon, D. P. (1988). Impaired learning of a motor skill in patients with Huntington's disease. Behavioral Neuroscience, 102, 141-147.
109. Heindel, W. C., Salmon, D. P., & Butters, N. (1991). The biasing of weight judgments in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease: A priming or programming phenomenon. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 189-203.
110. Heindel, W. C., Salmon, D. P., Shults, C. W., Walicke, P. A., & Butters, N. (1989). Neuropsychological evidence for multiple implicit memory systems: A comparison of Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Parkinson's disease patients. Journal of Neuroscience, 9, 582-587.
111. Henderson, V. W., Mack, W., & Williams, B. W. (1989). Spatial disorientation in Alzheimer's disease. Archives of Neurology, 46, 391-394.
112. Heuer, H., & Schmidtke, V. (1996). Secondary-task effects on sequence learning. Psychological Research, 59, 119-133.
113. Hocherman, S., & Aharon-Peretz, J. (1994). Two-dimensional tracing and tracking in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 44, 111-116.
114. Hollerbach, J. M. (1982). Computers, brains, and the control of movement. Trends in Neurosciences, 5, 189-192.
115. Howard, J. H., Mutler, S. A., & Howard, D. V. (1992). Serial pattern learning by event observation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 1029-1039.
116. Humphreys, M. S., & Revelle, W. (1984). Personality, motivation, and performance: A theory of the relationship between individual differences and information processing. Psychological Review, 91, 153-184.
117. Hyvarinen, J. (1982). Posterior parietal lobe of the primate brain. Physiology Reviews, 62, 1060-1129.
118. Imamizu, H., & Shimojo, S. (1995). The locus of visual-motor learning at the task or manipulator level: Implications from intermanual transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 719-733.
119. Ito, M. (1982). Cerebellar control of the vestibulo-occular reflex - Around the flocculus hypothesis. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 5, 275-296.
120. Ivry, R. B. (1993). Cerebellar involvement in the explicit representation of temporal information. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Temporal Information Processing in the Nervous System, 682, 214-230.
121. Ivry, R. B. (1995, November). In T. Thach (Chair), The role of the cerebellum in cognition. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.
122. Ivry, R. B., & Keele, S. W. (1989). Timing functions of the cerebellum. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 134-150.
123. Ivry, R. B., Keele, S. W., & Diener, H. C. (1988). Dissociation of the lateral and medial cerebellum in movement timing and movement execution. Experimental Brain Research, 73, 167-180.
124. Jackson, G. M., Jackson, S. R., Harrison, J., Henderson, L., & Kennard, C. (1995). Serial reaction time learning and Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a procedural learning deficit. Neuropsychologia, 33, 577-593.
125. James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt.
126. Jeannerod, M. (1994). The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 187-245.
127. Jeannerod, M., Michel, F., & Prablanc, C. (1984). The control of hand movements in a case of hemianaesthesia following a parietal lesion. Brain, 107, 899-920.
128. Jenkins, I. H., Brooks, D. J., Nixon, P. D., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Passingham, R. E. (1994). Motor sequence learning: A study with positron emission tomography. Journal of Neuroscience, 14, 3775-3790.
129. Jouandet, M., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (1979). The frontal lobes. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology (pp. 25-59). New York: Plenum.
130. Jueptner, M., Stephan, K. M., Frith, C. D., Brooks, D. J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Passingham, R. E. (1997). Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 1313-1324.
131. Karni, A., Meyer, G., Jezzard, P., Adams, M. M., Turner, R., & Ungerleider, L. G. (1995). Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature, 377, 155-158.
132. Kawashima, R., Roland, P. E., & O'Sullivan, B. T. (1995). Functional anatomy of reaching visuomotor learning: A positron emission tomography study. Cerebral Cortex, 2, 111-122.
133. Keele, S. W. (1981). Behavioral analysis of movement. In J. M. Brookhart, V. B. Mountcastle, & V. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of physiology (pp. 1391-1414). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.
134. Keele, S. W., & Jennings, P. (1992). Attention in the representation of sequence: Experiment and theory. Human Movement Science, 11, 125-138.
135. Keele, S. W., Jennings, P., Jones, S., Caulton, S., Caulton, D., & Cohen, A. (1995). On the modularity of sequence representation. Journal of Motor Behavior, 27, 17-30.
136. Keifer, J., & Houk, J. C. (1994). Motor function of the cerebellorubro-spinal system. Physiological Reviews, 74, 509-542.
137. Kim, S., Ugurbil, K., & Strick, P. L. (1994). Activation of a cerebellar output nucleus during cognitive processing. Science, 265, 949-951.
138. Kimble, C. E., & Rezabek, J. S. (1992). Playing games before an audience: Social facilitation or choking. Social Behavior and Personality, 20, 115-120.
139. Knopman, D. (1991). Long-term retention of implicitly acquired learning in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 880-894.
140. Knopman, D. S., & Nissen, M. J. (1987). Implicit learning in patients with probable Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 37, 784-788.
141. Knopman, D., & Nissen, M. J. (1991). Procedural learning is impaired in Huntington's disease: Evidence from the serial reaction time task. Neuropsychologia, 29, 245-254.
142. Kunzle, H. (1978). An autoradiographic analysis of the efferent connections from premotor and adjacent prefrontal regions (areas 6 and 9) in Macaca fascicularis. Brain and Behavior Evolution, 15, 185-234.
143. Laplane, D., Talairach, J., Meininger, V., Bancaud, J., & Orgogozo, J. M. (1977). Clinical consequences of corticectomies involving the supplementary motor area in man. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 34, 301-314.
144. Lashley, K. S. (1951). The problem of serial order in behavior. In L. A. Jeffress (Ed.), Cerebral mechanisms in behavior (pp. 112-131). New York: Wiley.
145. Leiner, H. C., Leiner, A. L., & Dow, R. S. (1986). Does the cerebellum contribute to mental skills? Behavioral Neuroscience, 100, 443-454.
146. Leiner, H. C., Leiner, A. L., & Dow, R. S. (1989). Reappraising the cerebellum: What does the hindbrain contribute to the forebrain? Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 998-1008.
147. Lisberger, S. G. (1988). The neural basis for learning of simple motor skills. Science, 242, 718.
148. Livingstone, M., & Hubel, D. (1988). Segregation of form, color, movement, and depth: Anatomy, physiology, and perception. Science, 240, 740-749.
149. Logan, G. D. (1985). Skill and automaticity: Relations, implications, and future directions. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 39, 367-386.
150. Luria, A. R. (1980). Higher cortical functions in man (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.
151. MacLeod, C. M., & Dunbar, K. (1988). Training and Stroop-like interference: Evidence for a continuum of automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 126-135.
152. Mann, S. E., Thau, R., & Schiller, P. H. (1988). Conditional task-related responses in monkey dorsomedial frontal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 69, 460-468.
153. Marks, A. R., & Cermak, L. S. (1996). Etiological differences in the amnesic syndrome: Performance of amnesic patients and patients with frontal-lobe damage on the serial reaction time task. Manuscript submitted for publication.
154. Marr, D. (1969). A theory of cerebellar cortex. Journal of Physiology, London, 202, 437-470.
155. Marsden, C. D., Rothwell, J. C., & Day, B. L. (1984). The use of peripheral feedback in the control of movement. Trends in Neuroscience, 7, 253-257.
156. Mayeux, R., & Stern, Y. (1983). Intellectual dysfunction and dementia in Parkinson's disease. In R. Mayeux & W. Rosen (Eds.), The dementias (211-227). New York: Raven Press.
157. Mayr, U. (1996). Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: Evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 350-364.
158. McCullagh, P., Weiss, M. R., & Ross, D. (1989). Modeling considerations in motor skill acquisition and performance: An integrated approach. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, 17, 475-513.
159. Merton, P. A. (1972). How we control the contraction of our muscles. Scientific American, 226, 30-37.
160. Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (1994). Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science, 266, 458-462.
161. Milner, A. D., & Goodale, M. A. (1995). The visual brain in action. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
162. Milner, B. (1964). Some effects of of frontal lobectomy in man. In J. Warren & K. Ekert (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (313-334). New York: McGraw Hill.
163. Milner, B., & Petrides, M. (1984). Behavioral effects of fronta-lobe lesions in man. Trends in Neurosciences, 7, 403-407.
164. Mountcastle, V. B., Lynch, J. C., Georgopoulos, A. P., Sakata, H., & Acuna, C. (1975). Posterior parietal association cortex of the monkey: Command functions for operations within extrapersonal space. Journal of Neurophysiology, 38, 871-908.
165. Mushiake, H., Inase, M., & Tanji, J. (1991). Neuronal activity in the primate premotor, supplementary, and precentral motor cortex during visually guided and internally determined sequential movements. Journal of Neurophysiology, 65, 705-718.
166. Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., & Giszter, S. F. (1994). Linear combinations of primitives in vertebrate motor control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 7534-7538.
167. Nebes, R. D. (1992). Cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. In F. Craik & T. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging (373-446). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
168. Neiss, R. (1988). Reconceptualizing arousal: Psychobiological states in motor performance. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 345-366.
169. Newell, K. M. (1991). Motor skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 213-237.
170. Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1-32.
171. Nissen, M. J., Willingham, D. B., & Hartman, M. (1989). Explicit and implicit remembering: When is learning preserved in amnesia? Neuropsychologia, 27, 341-352.
172. Norman, D. A. (1981). Categorization of action slips. Psychological Review, 88, 1-15.
173. Paillard, J. (1991). Motor and representational framing of space. In J. Paillard (Ed.), Brain and space (163-182). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
174. Parsons, L., Fox, P., Downs, J., Glass, T., Hirsch, T., Martin, C., Jerabek, P., & Lancaster, J. (1995). Use of implicit motor imagery for visual shape discrimination as revealted by PET. Nature, 375, 54-58.
175. Pascual-Leone, A., Grafman, J., Clark, K., Stewart, M., Massaquoi, S., Lou, J.-S., & Hallett, M. (1993). Procedural learning in Parkinson's disease and cerebellar degeneration. Annals of Neurology, 34, 594-602.
176. Pascual-Leone, A., Grafman, J., & Hallett, M. (1994). Modulation of cortical motor output maps during development of implicit and explicit knowledge. Science, 263, 1287-1289.
177. Passingham, R. E. (1985). Premotor cortex: Sensory cues and movement. Behavioural Brain Research, 18, 175-185.
178. Passingham, R. E. (1987). Two cortical systems for directing movement. In G. Bock, O. M. O'Connor, & J. Marsh (Eds.), Motor areas of the cerebral cortex (pp. 151-164). Chichester, England: Wiley.
179. Paulsen, J. S., Butters, N., Salmon, D. P., Heindel, W. C., & Swenson, M. R. (1993). Prism adaptation in Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease. Neuropsychology, 7, 73-81.
180. Paulus, P. B., & Cornelius, W. L. (1974). An analysis of gymnastic performance under conditions of practice and spectator observation. Research Quarterly, 45, 56-63.
181. Paulus, P. B., Shannon, J. C., Wilson, D. L., & Boone, T. D. (1972). The effect of spectator presence on gymnastic performance in a field situation. Psychonomic Science, 29, 88-90.
182. Pavlides, C., Miyashita, E., & Asanuma, H. (1993). Projection from the sensory to the motor cortex is important in learning motor skills in the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, 70, 733-741.
183. Perrett, D. I., Oram, M. W., Harries, M. H., Bevan, R., Hietanen, J. K., Benson, P. J., & Thomas, S. (1991). Viewer-centered and object-centered coding of heads in the macaque temporal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 86, 159-173.
184. Perruchet, P., & Amorim, M. A. (1992). Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 785-800.
185. Petrides, M. (1982). Motor conditional associative-learning after selective prefrontal lesions in the monkey. Behavioural Brain Research, 5, 407-413.
186. Petrides, M. (1985). Deficits on conditional associative-learning tasks
187. Pew, R. W. (1974). Levels of analysis in motor control. Brain Research, 71, 393-400.
188. Pinto-Hamuy, T., & Linck, P. (1965). Effect of frontal lesions on performance of sequential tasks by monkeys. Experimental Neurology, 12, 96-107.
189. Playford, E. D., Jenkins, I. H., Passingham, R. E., Nutt, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Brooks, D. J. (1992). Impaired mesial frontal and putamen activation in Parkinson's disease: A positron emission tomography study. Annals of Neurology, 32, 151-161.
190. Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25-42.
191. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
192. Rao, S. M., Binder, J. R., Bandettini, P. A., Hammeke, T. A., Yetkin, F. Z., Jesmanowicz, A., Lisk, L. M., Moris, G. L., Mueller, W. M., Estkowski, L. D., Wong, E. C., Haughton, V. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of complex human movements. Neurology, 43, 2311-2318.
193. Rauch, S. L., Savage, C. R., Brown, H. D., Curran, T., Alpert, N. M., Kendrick, A., Fischman, A. J., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1995). A PET investigation of implicit and explicit sequence learning. Human Brain Mapping. 3, 271-286.
194. Rauch, S. L., Whalen, P. J., Savage, C. R., Curran, T., Kendrick, A., Brown, H. D., Bush, G., Breiter, H. C., & Rosen, B. R. (1997). Striatal recruitment during an implicit sequence learning task as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 124-132.
195. Reber, P. J., & Squire, L. R. (1994). Parallel brain systems for learning with and without awareness. Learning and Memory, 1, 217-229.
196. Redding, G. M., & Wallace, B. (1996). Adaptive spatial alignment and strategic perceptual-motor control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22, 379-394.
197. Richardson, A. (1967). Mental practice: A review and discussion (Part II). Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 38, 263-273.
198. Robertson, C., & Flowers, K. A. (1990). Motor set in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 53, 583-592.
199. Roland, P. E., Larsen, B., Lassen, N. A., & Skinhoj, E. (1980). Supplementary motor area and other cortical areas in organization of voluntary movements in man. Journal of Neurophysiology, 43, 118-136.
200. Roll, R., Bard, C., & Paillard, J. (1986). Head orienting contributes to the directional accuracy of aiming at distant targets. Human Movement Science, 5, 359-371.
201. Rolls, E. T. (1991). Functions of the primate hippocampus in spatial processing and memory. In J. Paillard (Ed.), Brain and space (pp. 353-376). New York: Oxford University Press.
202. Ross, D., Bird, A. M., Doody, S. G., & Zoeller, M. (1985). Effect of modeling and videotape feedback with knowledge of results on motor performance. Human Movement Science, 4, 149-157.
203. Rossetti, Y. (in press). Implicit perception in action: Short-lived motor representations of space. In P. G. Grossenbacher (Ed.), Advances in consciousness research. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.
204. Rothwell, J. C., Traub, M. M., Day, B. L., Obeso, J. A., Thomas, P. K., & Marsden, C. D. (1982). Manual motor performance in a deafferented man. Brain, 105, 515-542.
205. Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition: Volume 1. Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
206. Sakamoto, T., Arissian, K., & Asanuma, H. (1989). Functional role of the sensory cortex in learning motor skills in cats. Brain Research, 503, 258-264.
207. Salidis, J., Willingham, D. B., Sederberg, P. B., & Hollier, J. A. (1996). Perceptual learning of an implicit sequence. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 22, 1122.
208. Salmon, D. P., & Butters, N. (1995). Neurobiology of skill and habit learning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 184-190.
209. Saltzman, E. L., & Kelso, J. A. S. (1987). Skilled actions: A task-dynamic approach. Psychological Review, 94, 84-106.
210. Sanes, J. N., Dimitrov, B., & Hallett, M. (1990). Motor learning in patients with cerebellar dysfunction. Brain, 113, 103-120.
211. Sanes, J. N., Mauritz, K.-H., Dalakas, M. C., & Evarts, E. V. (1985). Motor control in humans with large-fiber sensory neuropathy. Human Neurobiology, 4, 101-114.
212. Schlaug, G., Knorr, U., & Seitz, R. J. (1994). Inter-subject variability of cerebral activations in acquiring a motor skill: A study with positron emission tomography. Experimental Brain Research, 98, 523-534.
213. Schmahmann, J. D. (1991). An emerging concept: The cerebellar contribution to higher function. Archives of Neurology, 48, 1178-1187.
214. Schmahmann, J. D., & Pandya, D. N. (1989). Anatomical investigation of projections to the basis pontis from posterior parietal association cortices in rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 289, 53-73.
215. Schmidt, R. A. (1976). The schema as a solution to some persistent problems in motor-learning theory. In G. E. Stelmach (Ed.), Motor control: Issues and trends (pp. 41-65). New York: Academic Press.
216. Schmidtke, V., & Heuer, H. (1997). Task integration as a factor in secondary-task effects on sequence learning. Psychological Research, 60, 53-71.
217. Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1-66.
218. Schoner, G., Zanone, P. G., & Kelso, J. A. S. (1992). Learning as a change of coordination dynamics: Theory and experiment. Journal of Motor Behavior, 24, 29-48.
219. Schwartz, A. B. (1992). Motor cortical activity during drawing movements: Single-unit activity during sinusoid tracing. Journal of Neurophysiology, 68, 528-541.
220. Schwartz, A. B. (1993). Motor cortical activity during drawing movements: Population representation during sinusoid tracing. Journal of Neurophysiology, 70, 28-36.
221. Schwartz, A. B. (1995). Direct cortical representation of drawing. Science, 265, 540-542.
222. Scott, S. H., & Kalaska, J. F. (1997). Reaching movements with similar hand paths but different arm orientations. I. Activity of individual cells in motor cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 77, 826-852.
223. Scoville, W. B., & Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 20, 11-21.
224. Scully, D. M., & Newell, K. M. (1985). Observational learning and the acquisition of motor skills: Toward a visual perception perspective. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 11, 169-186.
225. Seitz, R., Canavan, A. G. M., Yaguez, L., Herzor, H., Tellman, L., Knorr, U., Huang, Y., & Homberg, V. (1994). Successive roles of the cerebellum and premotor cortices in trajectorial learning. NeuroReport, 5, 2541-2544.
226. Seitz, R. J., & Roland, P. E. (1992). Learning of sequential finger movements in man: A combined kinematic and positron emission tomography (PET) study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 154-165.
227. Seitz, R. J., Roland, P. E., Bohm, C., Greitz, T., & Stone-Elander, S. (1990). Motor learning in man: A positron emission tomographic study. NeuroReport, 1, 57-66.
228. Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B, 298, 199-209.
229. Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367-447.
230. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
231. Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99, 195-231.
232. Stadler, M. A. (1995). The role of attention in implicit learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 674-685.
233. Stein, J. F. (1992). The representation of egocentric space in the posterior parietal cortex. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 691-700.
234. Taira, M., Mine, S. L., Georgopoulos, A. P., Murata, A., & Sakata, H. (1990). Parietal cortex neurons of the monkey related to the visual guidance of hand movement. Experimental Brain Research, 83, 29-36.
235. Tanji, J., Mushiake, H., & Inase, M. (1993). Premotor and supplementary motor cortex in sequential motor tasks. In T. Ono, L. R. Squire, M. E. Raichle, D. I. Perrett, & M. Fukuda (Eds.), Brain mechanisms of perception and memory: From neuron to behavior (pp. 464-472). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
236. Tanji, J., & Shima, K. (1994). Role for supplementary motor area cells in planning several movements ahead. Nature, 371, 413-416.
237. Taub, E. (1976). Movement in nonhuman primates deprived of somato-sensory feedback [Special issue]. Exercise Sport Science Reviews, 4, 335-374.
238. Taub, E., & Berman, A. J. (1968). Movement and learning in the absence of sensory feedback. In S. Freeman (Ed.), The neuropyschology of spatially oriented behavior (pp. 173-192). Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
239. Taylor, A. E., Saint-Cyr, J. A., & Lang, A. E. (1986). Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: The cortical focus of neostriatal outflow. Brain, 109, 845-883.
240. Thompson, P. D., Berardelli, A., Rothwell, J. C., Day, B. L., Dick, J. P. R., Benecke, R., & Marsden, C. D. (1988). The coexistence of bradykinesia and chorea in Huntington's disease and its implications for theories of basal ganglia control of movement. Brain, 111, 223-244.
241. Thompson, R. F. (1986). The neurobiology of learning and memory. Science, 223, 941-947.
242. Topka, H., Valls-Sole, J., Massaquoi, S. G., & Hallett, M. (1993). Deficit in classical conditioning in patients with cerebellar degeneration. Brain, 116, 961-969.
243. Uhl, G. R., Hedreen, J. C., & Price, D. L. (1985). Parkinson's disease: Loss of neurons from the ventral tegmental area contralateral to therapeutic surgical lesions. Neurology, 35, 1215-1218.
244. Ungerleider, L. G., & Mishkin, M. (1982). Two cortical visual systems. In D. Ingle, M. Goodale, & R. Mansfield (Eds.), Analysis of visual behavior (pp. 549-586). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
245. Van Essen, D. C., & Deyoe, E. A. (1995). Concurrent processing in the primate visual cortex. In M. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 383-400). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
246. Vogt, S. (1995). On relations between perceiving, imagining and performing in the learning of cyclical movement sequences. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 191-216.
247. Watanabe, M. (1990). Prefrontal unit activity during associative learning in the monkey. Experimental Brain Research, 80, 296-309.
248. Weiner, M. J., Hallett, M., & Funkenstein, H. H. (1983). Adaptation to lateral displacement of vision in patients with lesions of the central nervous system. Neurology, 33, 766-772.
249. Willingham, D. B. (in press). Implicit motor sequence learning is not purely perceptual. Memory and Cognition.
250. Willingham, D. B., Hollier, J., & Joseph, J. (1995). A Macintosh analogue of a pursuit tracking task. Behavioral Research Methods, Instrumentation, and Computers, 27, 491-495.
251. Willingham, D. B., & Koroshetz, W. J. (1993). Evidence for dissociable motor skills in Huntington's disease patients. Psychobiology, 21, 173-182.
252. Willingham, D. B., Koroshetz, W. J., & Peterson, E. W. (1996). Motor skills have diverse neural bases: Spared and impaired learning in Huntington's disease patients. Neuropsychology, 10, 315-321.
253. Willingham, D. B., Koroshetz, W. J., Treadwell, J. R., & Bennett, J. P. (1995). A comparison of Huntington's and Parkinson's disease patients' use of advance information. Neuropsychology, 9, 39-46.
254. Willingham, D. B., Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1989). On the development of procedural knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1047-1060.
255. Willingham, D. B., Peterson, E. W., Manning, C., & Brashear, H. R. (1997). Patients with Alzheimer's disease who cannot perform some motor skills show normal learning of other motor skills. Neuropsychology, 11, 272-281.
256. Wraga, M., Creem, S. H., & Proffitt, D. R. (in press). Spatial frames of reference in perceiving and acting. In M. McBeath (Ed.), Spatial navigation in people, animals, and machines. New York: Sage.
257. Wright, C. E. (1990). Generalized motor programs: Reexamining claims of effector independence in writing. In M. Jeannerod (Ed.), Attention and performance: XIII. Motor representation and control (pp. 294-320). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
258. Yamatani, K., Ono, T., Nishijo, H., & Takaku, A. (1990). Activity and distribution of learning-related neurons in monkey (Macaca fuscata) prefrontal cortex. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104, 503-531.
259. Yardley, L. (1990). Contribution of somatosensory information to perception of the visual vertical with body tilt and rotating visual field. Perception and Psychophysics, 42, 131-134.
260. Zangwill, O. L. (1966). Psychological deficits associated with frontal lobe lesions. International Journal of Neurology, 5, 395-402.