Bone and Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering: The Biological Components

Biodegradable Systems in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 457-478

  Salgado, A J ^a   Gomes, Manuela E ^a   Coutinho, O P ^a   Reis, Rui L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINHO   (Portugal)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34249811332     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9780203491232-33     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. Sommerfeldt, D.W. and Rubin, C.T., Biology of bone and how it orchestrates the form and function of the skeleton, Eur. Spine J., 10, S86, 2001.
2. Rodan, G. A., Introduction to bone biology, Bone, 13, S3, 1992.
3. LeBaron, R.G. and Athanasiou, K.A., Ex vivo synthesis of articular cartilage, Biomaterials, 21, 2575, 2000.
4. Langer, R. and Vacanti, J.P., Tissue engineering, Science, 260, 920, 1993.
5. Kneser, U. et al., Tissue engineering of bone, Min. Invas. Ther. Allied Technol., 11, 107, 2002.
6. Laurencin, C.T. et al., Tissue engineering: orthopedic applications, Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng., 1, 19, 1999.
7. Petite, H. et al., Tissue-engineered bone regeneration, Nat. Biotechnol., 18, 959, 2000.
8. Spitzer, R. et al., Matrix engineering for osteogenic differentiation of rabbit peristal cells using alphatricalcium phosphate particles in a three-dimensional fibrinculture, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 59, 690, 2002.
9. Simon, G.C., Jr. et al., Preliminary report on the biocompatibility of a moldable, resorbable, composite bone graft consisting of calcium phosphate cement and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres, J. Orthop. Res., 20, 473, 2002.
10. Rose, F.R. and Oreffo, R.O., Bone tissue engineering: hope vs hype, Biochem. Biophy. Res. Comm., 292, 1, 2002.
11. Yaszemski, M.J. et al., Clinical needs for bone tissue-engineering technology, in Bone Engineering, 1st ed., Davies, J.E., Ed., Em squared, Toronto, chap. 51.
12. Williams, D.F., Perspectives on the contributions of biomaterials and tissue engineering to bone repair, reconstruction, and regeneration, in Bone Engineering, 1st ed., Davies, J.E., Ed., Em squared, Toronto, chap. 54.
13. Hunziker, E.B., Articular cartilage repair: are the intrinsic biological constraints undermining this process insuperable?, Osteoarth. Cartil., 7, 15, 1999.
14. Holland, T.A. and Mikos, A.G., Advances in drug delivery for articular cartilage, J. Cont. Rel., 86, 1, 2003.
15. Cancedda, R. et al., Tissue engineering and cell therapy of cartilage and bone, Matrix Biol., 22, 81, 2003.
16. Hunziker, E.B., Articular cartilage repair: basic science and clinical progress. A review of the current status and prospects, Osteoarth. Cartil., 10, 432, 2001.
17. Fang, J. and Hall, B.K., Chondrogenic cell differentiation from membrane bone perostea, Anat. Embryol., 196, 349, 1997.
18. Hsieh, P.C.et al., Repair of full-thickness cartilage defects in rabbit knees with free periostal graft preincubated with transforming growth factor, Orthopedics, 26, 393, 2003.
19. Mierisch, C.M. et al., Treatment with insulin-like growth factor-1 increases chondrogenesis by periosteum in vitro, Connect. Tis. Res., 43, 559, 2002.
20. Sikavitsas, V.I., Temenoff, J.S., and Mikos, A.G., Biomaterials and bone mechanotransduction, Biomaterials, 22, 2581, 2001.
21. Hill, P.A. and Orth, M., Bone remodelling, Br. J. Orthod., 25, 101, 1998.
22. Baron, R., Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, 2nd ed., Raven Press, New York, p. 3.
23. Weiner, S. and Wagner, H.D., The material bone: Structure mechanical function relations, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci., 28, 271, 1998.
24. Weiner, S., Traub, W., and Wagner, H.D., Lamellar bone structure-function relations, J. Struct. Biol., 126, 241, 1999.
25. Aubin, J.E. and Liau, F., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 51.
26. Ducy, P., Schinke, T., and Karsenty, G., The osteoblast: a sophisticated fibroblast under central surveillance, Science, 289, 1501, 2000.
27. Knothe Tate, M.L., Adamson, J.R., Tami, A.E., and Bauer, T.W., The osteocyte, Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 36, 1, 2008.
28. Vaananen, K., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 103.
29. Rossert, J. and De Crombrugghe, B., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 127.
30. Triffit, J.T., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 39.
31. Termine, J.D., Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, 2nd ed., Raven Press, New York, 1993, p. 21.
32. Robey, P.G., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 155.
33. Buttler, W.T., Ridall, A.L., and McKee, M.D., Principles of Bone Biology, 1st ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996, p. 167.
34. Sodek, J., Ganss, B., and McKee, M.D., Osteopontin, Crit. Rev. Oral Bio. Med., 11, 279, 2000.
35. Temenoff, J.S. and Mikos, A.G., Review: tissue engineering for regeneration of articular cartilage, Biomaterials, 21, 431, 2000.
36. van der Kraan, P.M. et al., Interaction of chondrocytes, extracellular matrix and growth factors relevance for articular cartilage tissue engineering, Osteoarth. Cartil., 10, 631, 2002.
37. von der Mark, K., Components of the organic extracellular matrix of bone and cartilage, in Dynamics of Bone and Cartilage Metabolism, Seibel, M.J., Robins, S.P., and Bilezekian, J.P., Eds., San Diego, 1999, chap. 1.
38. Heinegard, D., Saxne, T., and Lorenzo, P., Noncollagenous proteins: glycoproteins and related molecules, in Dynamics of Bone and Cartilage Metabolism, Seibel, M.J., Robins, S.P., and Bilezekian, J.P., Eds., San Diego, 1999, chap. 4.
39. Heath, C.A., Cells for tissue engineering, Trends Biotechnol., 18, 17, 2000.
40. Platt, J.L., The immunological barriers to xenotransplantation, Critic. Rev. Immunol., 16, 331, 1996.
41. Blau, H.M., Brazelton, T.R., and Weimann, J.M., The evolving concept of a stem cell: entity or function?, Cell, 105, 829, 2001.
42. Allison, M.R. et al., An introduction to stem cells, J. Pathol., 197, 419, 2002.
43. Preston, S.L. et al., The new stem cell biology: something for everyone, J. Clin. Pathol.: Mol. Pathol., 56, 86, 2003.
44. Presnell, S.C., Petersen, B., and Heidaran, M., Stem cells in adult tissues, Cell Dev. Biol., 13, 369, 2002.
45. Martin, G.R., Isolation of a pluripotent cell line from early mouse embryos cultured in medium conditioned by teratocarcinoma stem cells, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 78, 7634, 1981.
46. Evans, M.J. and Kaufman, M.H., Establishment in culture of pluripotential cells from mouse embryos, Nature, 292, 154, 1981.
47. Bradley, A. et al., Formation of germ-line chimaeras from embryo-derived teratocarcinoma cell lines, Nature, 309, 255, 1984.
48. Labosky, P.A., Barlow, D.P., and Hogan, B.L.M., Mouse embryonic germ (e.g.) cell lines: transmission through the germline and differences in the methylation imprint of insulin like growth factor 2 receptor (Igf2r) gene compared with embryonic stem (ES) cell lines, Development, 120, 3197, 1994.
49. Graves, K.H. and Moreadith, R.W., Derivation and characterization of putative pluripotential embryonic stem cells from preimplantation rabbit embryos, Mol. Reprod. Dev., 36, 1993, 1993.
50. Thomson, J.A. et al., Isolation of a primate embryonic stem cell line, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 92, 7844, 1995.
51. Thomson, J.A. et al., Embryonic stem cell lines derived from human blastocysts, Science, 282, 1145, 1998.
52. Reubinoff, B.E., Embryonic stem cell lines from human blastocysts: somatic differentiation in vitro, Nat. Biotechnol., 18, 399, 2000.
53. Wobus, A.M., Potential of embryonic stem cells, Mol. Aspect. Med., 22, 149, 2001.
54. Wobus, A.M. and Guan, K.M., Embryonic stem cell-derived cardiac differentiation: Modulation of differentiation and "loss-of-function" analysis in vitro, Trends Cardiov. Med., 8, 64, 1998.
55. Wiles, M.V. and Keller, G., Multiple hematopoietic lineages develop from embryonic stem cells (ES) in culture, Development, 111, 259, 1991.
56. Wang, R., Clark, R., and Bautch, V.L., Embryonic stem cell-derived cystic embryoid bodies form vascular channels: an in vitro model of blood vessel development, Development, 114, 303, 1992.
57. Yamashita, J. et al., Flk-1 positive cells derived from embryonic stem cells serve as vascular progenitors, Nature, 408, 92, 2000.
58. Guan, K.M. et al., Embryonic stem cells derived neurogenesis. Retinoic acid induction and lineage selection of neuronal cells, Cell Tissue Res., 305, 171, 2001.
59. Schuldiner, M. et al., Induced neuronal differentiation of human embryonic stem cells, Brain Res., 913, 201, 2001.
60. Kramer, J. et al., Embryonic stem cell derived chondrogenic differentiation in vitro: activation by BMP-2 and BMP-4, Mechan. Dev., 92, 193, 2000.
61. Nakayama, N. et al., Macroscopic cartilage formation with embryonic stem cell derived mesodermal progenitor cells, J. Cell Sci., 116, 2015, 2003.
62. Dani, C., Embryonic stem cell derived adipogenesis, Cells Tissues Org., 165, 173, 1999.
63. Dani, C. et al., Differentiation of embryonic stem cells into adipocytes in vitro, J. Cell Sci., 110, 1279, 1997.
64. Hamazaki, T. et al., Hepatic maturation in differentiating embryonic stem cells into hepatocytes, FEBS Lett., 497, 15, 2001.
65. Choi, D.H. et al., In vivo differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells into hepatocytes, Cell Transplant., 11, 359, 2002.
66. Shiroi, A. et al., Identification of insulin producing cells derived from embryonic stem cells by zincchelating dithizone, Stem Cells, 20, 284, 2002.
67. Buttery, L.D.K. et al., Differentiation of osteoblasts and in vitro bone formation from murine embryonic stem cells, Tissue Eng., 7, 89, 2001.
68. Pittenger, M.F. et al., Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells, Science, 284, 143, 1999.
69. Hanada, K. et al., BMP-2 induction and TGF-beta 1 modulation of rat periostal cell chondrogenesis, J. Cell. Biochem., 81, 284, 2001.
70. Perka, C. et al., Segmental bone repair by tissue-engineered peristal cell transplants with bioresorbable fleece and fibrin scaffolds, Biomaterials, 21, 1145, 2000.
71. Williams, J.T. et al., Cell isolated from adult human skeletal muscle capable of differentiating mesodermal phenotypes, Amer. Surg., 65, 22, 1999.
72. Zuk, P.A. et al., Multilineage cells from human adipose tissue: implications for cell-based therapies, Tissue Eng., 7, 211, 2001.
73. Mckay, R., Stem cells in the central nervous system, Science, 276, 66, 1997.
74. Gage, F.H., Mammalian neural stem cells, Science, 287, 1433, 2000.
75. Toma, J.G. et al., Isolation of multipotent adult stem cells from the dermis of the mammalian skin, Nat. Cell Biol., 3, 778, 2001.
76. Friedenstein, A.J., Determined and inducible osteogenic precursor cells, in Hard Tissue Growth, Repair and Remineralization, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1973, pp. 169–185.
77. Caplan, A.I., Mesenchymal stem cells, J. Orthop. Res., 9, 641, 1991.
78. Caplan, A.I., The mesengenic process, Clin. Plast. Surg., 21(3), 429, 1994.
79. Jaiswal, N. et al., Osteogenic differentiation of purified, culture expanded human mesenchymal stem cells in vitro, J. Cell. Biochem., 64, 295, 1997.
80. Nilsson, S.K. et al., Cells capable of bone production engraft from whole bone marrow transplants in nonablated mice, J. Exp. Med., 189, 729, 1999.
81. Kadiyala, S. et al., Culture expanded canine mesenchymal stem cells possess osteochondrogenic potential in vivo and in vitro, Cell Transplant., 6, 125, 1997.
82. Mackay, A.M. et al., Chondrogenic differentiation of cultured human mesenchymal stem cells from marrow, Tissue Eng., 4, 415, 1998.
83. Johnstone, B., In vitro chondrogenesis of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells, Exp. Cell Res., 238, 265, 1998.
84. Bruder, S.P., Jaiswal, N., and Haynesworth, S.E., Growth extensive subcultivation and following cryopreservation, J. Cell. Biochem., 64, 278, 1997.
85. Devine, S.M., Mesenchymal stem cells: will they have a role in the clinic?, J. Cell Biochem., S38, 73, 2002.
86. Ringe, J. et al., Stem cells for regenerative medicine: advances in the engineering of tissue and organs, Naturwissenschaften, 89, 338, 2002.
87. Haynesworth, S.E., Baber, M.A., and Caplan, A.I., Cell surface antigens on human marrow-derived mesenchymal cells are detected by monoclonal antibodies, Bone, 13, 69, 1992.
88. Bruder, S.P. et al., Monoclonal antibodies reactive with human osteogenic cell surface antigens, Bone, 21, 225, 1997.
89. Bruder, S.P. et al., Mesenchymal stem cell surface antigen SB-10 corresponds to activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule and is involved in osteogenic differentiation, J. Bone Miner. Res., 13, 655, 1998.
90. Barry, F. et al., The SH-3 and SH-4 antibodies recognize distinct epitopes on CD 73 from human mesenchymal stem cells, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 289, 519, 2001.
91. Baksh, D., Davies, J.E., and Zandstra, P.W., Adult human bone marrow derived mesenchymal progenitor cells are capable of human adhesion independent survival and expansion, Exp. Hematol., 31, 723, 2003.
92. Inoue, K. et al., The effect of aging on bone formation in porous hydroxyapatite: biochemical and histological analysis, J. Bone Miner. Res., 12, 989, 1997.
93. D’Ippolito, G. et al., Age related osteogenic potential of mesenchymal stromal stem cells from human vertebral bone marrow, J. Bone Min. Res., 14, 115, 1999.
94. Mendes, S.C. et al., Bone tissue-engineered implants using human bone marrow stromal cells: effect of culture conditions and donor age, Tissue Eng., 8, 911, 2002.
95. Pittenger, M.F., Applications of mesenchymal stem cells, Nature, 414, 132, 2001.
96. Jadlowiec, J.A., Celil, A.B., and Hollinger, J.O., Bone tissue engineering: recent advances and promising therapeutic agents, Expert. Opin. Biol. Ther., 3, 409, 2003.
97. Boden, S.D., Bioactive factors for bone tissue engineering, Clin. Orthop., 367S, S84, 1999.
98. Lind, M. and Bunger, C., Factors stimulating bone formation, Eur. Spine J., 10, S102, 2001.
99. Yoon, S.T. and Boden, S.D., Osteoinductive molecules in orthopaedics: basic science and preclinical studies, Clin. Orthop., 395, 33, 2002.
100. Malafaya, P.B., Drug delivery therapies I — General trends and its importance on bone tissue engineering applications, Curr. Opin. Sol. Sta. Mater. Sci., 6, 283, 2002.
101. Grimaud, E., Heymann, D., and Rédini, F., Recent advances in TGF-b effects on chondrocyte metabolism. Potential therapeutic roles of TGF-b in cartilage disorders, Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 13, 241, 2002.
102. Reddi, A.H., Morphogenesis and tissue engineering of bone and cartilage: inductive signals, stem cells and biomimetic biomaterials, Tissue Eng., 6, 351, 2000.
103. Reddi, A.H., Bone and cartilage differentiation, Curr. Opin. Gen. Dev., 4, 737, 1994.
104. Urist, M.R., Bone: Formation by autoinduction, Science, 150, 893, 1965.
105. Gallea, S. et al., Activation of mitogen activated protein kinase cascades is involved in regulation of bone morphogenetic proteins-2 induced osteoblast differentiation in pluripotent C2C12 cells, Bone, 28, 491, 2001.
106. Cook, S.D., Preclinical and clinical evaluation of osteogenic protein-1 (BMP-7) in bony sites, Orthopedics, 22, 669, 1999.
107. Bruder, S.P. and Fox, B.S., Tissue engineering of bone. Cell based strategies. Clin. Orthop., 367S, S68, 1999.
108. Govinden, R. and Bhoola, K.D., Genealogy, expression, and cellular function of transforming growth factor-beta, Pharmacol. Ther., 98, 257, 2003.
109. Lind, M. et al., Transforming growth factor-beta enhances fracture healing in rabbit tibiae, Acta Orthop. Scand., 64, 553, 1993.
110. Barry, F. et al., Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow: Differentiation- dependent gene expression of matrix components, Exp. Cell Res., 268, 189, 2001.
111. Wang, W.G. et al., In vitro chondrogenesis of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells in monolayer culture: activation by transfection with TGF-b2, Tissue Cell, 35, 69, 2003.
112. Canalis, E. and Agnusdei, D., Insulin like growth factor and their role in osteoporosis, Calcif. Tissue Int., 58, 133, 1996.
113. Fukumoto, T. et al., Combined effects of insulin-like growth factor-1 and transforming growth factor-b1 on periostal mesenchymal cells during chondrogenesis in vitro, Osteoarth. Cartil., 11, 55, 2003.
114. Mei, P.et al., Growth factors for sequential cellular de and re-differentiation in tissue engineering, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 294, 149, 2002.
115. Lo, M.Y. and Kim, H.T., Chondrocyte apoptosis induced by collagen degradation: inhibition by caspase inhibitors and IGF-1, J. Orthop. Res., 22, 140, 2004.
116. Rabbany, S.Y. et al., Molecular pathways regulating mobilization of marrow derived stem cells for tissue revascularization, Trends Mol. Med., 9, 109, 2003.
117. Uchida, S. et al., Vascular endothelial growth factor is expressed along with its receptors during the healing process of bone and bone marrow after drill hole injury in rats, Bone, 32, 491, 2003.
118. Furumatsu, T., Vascular endothelial growth factor principally acts as the main angiogenic factor in the early stage of human osteoblastogenesis, J. Biochem., 133, 633, 2003.
119. Franceschi, R.T. and Xiao, G., Regulation of the osteoblast specific transcription factor, Runx2: responsiveness to multiple signal transduction pathways, J. Cell. Biochem., 88, 446, 2003.
120. Mastrogiacomo, M., Cancedda, R., and Quarto, R., Effect of different growth factors on the chondrogenic potential of human bone marrow stromal cells, Osteoarth. Cartil., 9, S36, 2001.
121. Martin, I. et al., Mammalian chondrocytes expanded in the presence of fibroblast growth factor 2 maintain the ability to differentiate and regenerate three-dimensional cartilaginous tissue, Exp. Cell Res., 253, 681, 1999.
122. Ellsworth, J.L. et al., Fibroblast growth factor-18 is a trophic factor for mature chondrocytes and their progenitors, Osteoarth. Cartil., 10, 308, 2002.
123. Rasubala, L., Platelet derived growth factor and bone morphogenetic protein in the healing of mandibular fractures in rats, Br. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg., 41, 173, 2003.
124. Davisson, T. et al., Perfusion increases cell content and matrix synthesis in chondrocyte threedimensional cultures, Tissue Eng., 8, 807, 2002.
125. Mauck, R.L. et al., Synergistic action of growth factors and dynamic loading for articular cartilage tissue engineering, Tissue Eng., 9, 597, 2003.
126. Bonassar, L.J. et al., Mechanical and physochemical regulation of the action of insulin-like growth factor I on articular cartilage, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 379, 57, 2000.
127. Darling, E.M. and Athanasiou, K.A., Articular cartilage bioreactors and bioprocesses, Tissue Eng., 9, 565, 2003.
128. Bancroft, G.N. et al., Fluid flow increases mineralized matrix deposition in 3D perfusion culture of marrow stromal osteoblasts in a dose depended manner, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 99, 12600, 2002.
129. Sikavitsas, V.I., Bancroft, G.N., and Mikos, A.G., Formation of three dimensional cell/polymer constructs for bone tissue engineering in a spinner flask and a rotating wall vessel bioreactor, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 62, 136, 2002.
130. Botchwey, E.T. et al., Bone tissue engineering in a rotating bioreactor using a microcarrier matrix system, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 55, 242, 2001.
131. Guilak, F.et al., The deformation behavior and mechanical properties of chondrocytes in articular cartilage, Osteoarth. Cartil., 7, 59, 1999.
132. Goldstein, A.S. et al., Effect of convection on osteoblastic cell growth and function in biodegradable polymer foam scaffolds, Biomaterials, 2, 1279, 2001.
133. Begley, C.M. and Kleis, S.J., The fluid dynamic and shear environment in the NASA/JSC rotating perfused vessel bioreactor, Biotech. Bioeng., 70, 32, 2000.
134. Glowacki, J., Mizuno, S., and Greenberger, J.S., Perfusion enhances functions of bone marrow stromal cells in three dimensional culture, Cell Transplant., 7, 319, 1998.
135. Duray, P.H., Hatfill, S.J., and Pellis, N.R., Tissue culture in microgravity, Sci. Med., 7, 46, 1997.
136. Vacanti, J.P. and Vacanti, C.A., The challenge of tissue engineering, in Principles of Tissue Engineering, Lanza, R., Langer, R., and Chick, W., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 1997, chap. 1.
137. Qiu, Q.Q., Ducheyne, P., and Ayaswamy, P.S., 3D bone tissue engineered with bioactive microspheres in simulated microgravity, In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol., 37, 157, 2001.
138. Minuth, W.W. et al., Physiological and cell biological aspects of perfusion culture technique employed to generate differentiated tissues for long term biomaterial and tissue engineering, J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed., 11, 495, 2000.
139. Goldstein, S.A., Tissue engineering: functional assessment and clinical outcome, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 961, 183, 2002.
140. Salgado, A.J., Coutinho, O.P., and Reis, R.L., Bone tissue engineering: State of the art and future trends, Macromol. Biosci., 2004, in press.
141. An, Y.H. and Friedman, R.J., Animal Models in Orthopaedic Research, 1st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999, p. 241.
142. Schantz, J.T. et al., Induction of ectopic formation by using periostal cells in combination with a novel scaffolds technology, Cell Transplant., 11, 125, 2002.
143. Malda, J. et al., Expansion of human nasal chondrocytes on macroporous microcarriers enhances redifferentiation, Biomaterials, 24, 5153, 2003.
144. Mendes, S.C.et al., Evaluation of two biodegradable polymeric systems as substrates for bone tissue engineering, Tissue Eng., 9, S91, 2003.
145. Liebschner, M.A.K., Biomechanical considerations of animal models used in tissue engineering of bone, Biomaterials, 25, 1697, 2003.
146. Reinholz, G.G. et al., Animal models for cartilage reconstruction, Biomaterials, 25, 1511, 2004.
147. Pineda, S. et al., A semiquantative scale for histologic grading of articular cartilage repair. Acta Anat., 143, 335, 1992.
148. O’Driscoll, S.W., Keeley, F.W., and Salter, R.B., The chondrogenic potential of free autogenous periostal grafts for biological resurfacing of major full-thickness defects in joint surfaces under the influence of continuous passive motion. An experimental investigation in the rabbit, J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am., 68, 1017, 1986.
149. O’Driscoll, S.W.et al., Durability of regenerated articular cartilage produced by free autogenous periostal grafts in major full-thickness defects in joint surfaces under the influence of continuous passive motion. A follow-up report at one year, J. Bone Jt. Surg. Am., 70, 595, 1988.