Acute and chronic effects of ketamine upon human memory: A review

Psychopharmacology

Volumn 188, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 408-424

  Morgan, Celia J A ^a   Curran, H Valerie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Drug abuse; Episodic memory; Glutamate; Ketamine; NMDA; Semantic memory; Working memory

Indexed keywords

KETAMINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; AMINO ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANESTHETIC AGENT; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR;

ATTENTION; CINGULATE GYRUS; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; EPISODIC MEMORY; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; MEMORY CONSOLIDATION; MEMORY DISORDER; MENTAL TASK; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROCEDURAL MEMORY; PSYCHOSIS; RECALL; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEMANTIC MEMORY; TASK PERFORMANCE; WORKING MEMORY; ANIMAL; DRUG ANTAGONISM; MEMORY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

ANESTHETICS, DISSOCIATIVE; ANIMALS; EXCITATORY AMINO ACID ANTAGONISTS; HUMANS; KETAMINE; MEMORY; RECEPTORS, N-METHYL-D-ASPARTATE; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 34248576544     PISSN: 00333158     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0572-3     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Abel KM, Allin MPG, Hemsley DR, Geyer MA (2003) Low dose ketamine increases pre-pulse inhibition in healthy men. Neuropharmacology 44:729-737
2. Adams B, Moghaddam B (1998) Corticolimbic dopamine neurotransmission is temporally dissociated from the cognitive and locomotor effects of phencyclidine. J Neurosci 18:5545-5554
3. Adler CM, Goldberg TE, Malhotra AK, Breier A (1998) Effects of ketamine on thought disorder, working memory and semantic memory in healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 43:811-816
4. Allen HA, Liddle PF, Frith CD (1993) Negative features, retrieval processes and verbal fluency in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 163:769-775
5. Anand A, Charney DS, Oren DA, Berman RM, Hu XS, Cappiello A, Krystal JH (2000) Attenuation of the neuropsychiatric effects of ketamine with lamotrigine - support for hyperglutamatergic effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:270-276
6. Arvanov VL, Wang RY (1998) Clozapine, but not haloperidol or raclopride, prevents functional hyperactivity of NMDA receptors in rat cortical neurons induced by subchronic administration of phencyclidine. Soc Neurosci Abstr 24:1827
7. Baddeley A (1998) Recent developments in working memory. Current opinion in neurobiology 8:234-238
8. Baddeley A (2000) The episdoic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4:417-423
9. Bernstein HG, Becker A, Keilhoff G, Spilker C, Gorczyca WA, Braunewell KH, Grecksch G (2003) Brain region-specific changes in the expression of calcium sensor proteins after repeated applications of ketamine to rats. Neurosci Lett 339:95-98
10. Cabeza R, Nyberg L (2000) Neural bases of learning and memory: functional neuroimaging evidence. Curr Opin Neurol 13:415-421
11. Carlin AS, Grant I, Adams KM, Reed R (1979) Is phencyclidine (PCP) abuse associated with organic brain impairment? Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 6:273-281
12. Carlsson A, Waters N, Carlsson ML (1999) Neurotransmitter interactions in schizophrenia - therapeutic implications. Biol Psychiatry 46:1388-1395
13. Chambers RA, Krystal JH, Self DW (2001) A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 50:71-83
14. Cohen BD, Rosenbaum G, Luby ED, Gottlieb JS (1962) Comparison of phencyclidine hydrocholoride (sernyl) with other drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 6:395-401
15. Cosgrove J, Newell TG (1991) Recovery of neuropsychological functions during reduction in use of phencyclidine. J Clin Psychol 47:159-169
16. Craik FIM, Lockhart RS (1972) Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11:671-684
17. Curran HV (2000) Is MDMA ('Ecstasy') neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and of methodological problems in research. Neuropsychobiology 42:34-41
18. Curran HV, Monaghan L (2001) In and out of the K-hole: a comparison of the acute and residual effects of ketamine in frequent and infrequent ketamine users. Addiction 96:749-760
19. Curran HV, Morgan CJA (2000) Cognitive, dissociative and psychotogenic effects of ketamine on recreational users on the night of drug use and 3 days later. Addiction 95:575-590
20. Danion JM, Rizzo L, Bruant A (1999) Functional mechanisms underlying impaired recognition memory and conscious awareness in patients with schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:639-644
21. Deakin JF, Simpson MD (1997) A two-process theory of schizophrenia: evidence from studies in post-mortem brain. J Psychiatr Res 31:277-295
22. Drejer J, Honore T (1987) Phencyclidine analogues inhibit NMDA-stimulated [3H]GABA release from cultured cortex neurons. Eur J Pharmacol 143:287-290
23. DrugScope (2005) UK drug situation 2005. http://www.drugscope.org.uk/ news_item.asp?intID=1241
24. D'Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, Ammerman Y, Cooper T, Wu YT, Braley G, Gueorguieva R, Krystal JH (2004) The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 29:1558-1572
25. D'Souza DC, Abi-Saab WM, Madonick S, Forselius-Bielen K, Doersch A, Braley G, Gueorguieva R, Cooper TB, Krystal JH (2005) Delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol Psychiatry 57:594-608
26. Duncan GE, Miyamoto S, Lieberman JA (2003) Chronic administration of haloperidol and olanzapine attenuates ketamine-induced brain metabolic activation. J Clin Exp Ther 305:999-1005
27. Dundee JW, Lilburn JK (1978) Ketamine-lorazepam: attenuation of psychic sequelae of ketamine by lorazepam. Anaesthesia 33: 312-314
28. Fauman MA, Fauman BJ (1978) The psychiatric aspects of chronic phencyclidine use: a study of chronic PCP users. In: Stillman RC, Stillman RC (eds) Phencyclidine (PCP) abuse: an appraisal. National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD, pp 66-118
29. Feldman RS, Meyer JS, Quenzer LF (1997) Principles of neuropsychopharmacology. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA
30. Fletcher PC, Frith CD, Rugg MD (1997) The functional neuroanatomy of episodic memory. Trends in Neurosciences 20:213-218
31. Fletcher PC, Honey GD (2006) Schizophrenia, ketamine and cannabis: evidence of overlapping memory deficits. Trends Cogn Sci 10:167-174
32. Freuchen I, Ostergaard J, Kuhl JB, Mikkelsen BO (1976) Reduction of psychotomimetic side effects of Ketalar (ketamine) by Rohypnol (flunitrazepam). A randomized double-blind trial. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 20:97-103
33. Ghoneim M, Hinrichs JV, Mewaldt SP, Peterson RC (1985) Ketamine: behavioural effects at subanesthetic doses. J Clin Psychopharmacol 5:70-77
34. Goldstein RZ, Volkow ND (2002) Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry 159:1642-1652
35. Grossberg S (1984) Some normal and abnormal behavioral syndromes due to transmitter gating of opponent processes. Biol Psychiatry 19:1075-1118
36. Harborne GC, Watson FL, Healy DT, Groves L (1996) The effects of sub-anaesthetic doses of ketamine on memory, cognitive performance and subjective experience in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 10:134-140
37. Harris JA, Biersner RJ, Edwards D, Bailey LW (1975) Attention, Learning and Personality During Ketamine Emergence: A Pilot Study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 54:169-172
38. Harvey PD, Green MF, McGurk SR, Meltzer HY (2003) Changes in cognitive functioning with risperidone and olanzapine treatment: a large-scale, double-blind, randomized study. Psychopharmacology 169:404-411
39. Hazeltine E, Ivry RB (2003) Neural structures that support implicit sequence learning. In: Jiminez L (ed) John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp 109-141
40. Heckers S, Rauch SL, Goff D, Savage CR, Schacter DL, Fischman AJ, Alpert NM (1998) Impaired recruitment of the hippocampus during conscious recollection in schizophrenia. Nat Neurosci 1:318-323
41. Hetem LAB, Danion JM, Diemunsch P, Brandt C (2000) Effect of a subanesthetic dose of ketamine on memory and conscious awareness in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 152:283-288
42. Honey RAE, Turner D, Honey GD, Sharar SR, Kumaran D, Pomarol-Clotet E, McKenna PJ, Sahakian B, Robbins TW, Fletcher PC (2003) Low dose ketamine produces a deficit in manipulation but not maintenance of the contents of working memory. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:2037-2044
43. Honey RA, Honey GD, O'loughlin C, Sharar SR, Kumaran D, Bullmore ET, Menon DK, Donovan T, Lupson VC, Bisbrown-Chippendale R, Fletcher PC (2004) Acute ketamine administration alters the brain responses to executive demands in a verbal working memory task: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 29:1203-1214
44. Honey GD, Honey RA, O'loughlin C, Sharar SR, Kumaran D, Suckling J, Menon DK, Sleator C, Bullmore ET (2005a) Ketamine disrupts frontal and hippocampal contribution to encoding and retrieval of episodic memory: an FMRI study. Cereb Cortex 15:749-759
45. Honey G, Honey R, Sharar S, Turner D, Pomarol-Clotet E, Kumaran D, Simons J, Hu X, Rugg M, Bullmore E, Fletcher P (2005b) Impairment of specific episodic memory processes by sub-psychotic doses of ketamine: the effects of levels of processing at encoding and of the subsequent retrieval task. Psychopharmacology 181:445-457
46. Honey GD, O'loughlin C, Turner DC, Pomarol-Clotet E, Corlett PR, Fletcher PC (2006) The effects of a subpsychotic dose of ketamine on recognition and source memory for agency: implications for pharmacological modelling of core symptoms of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 31:413-423
47. Hurt PH, Ritchie EC (1994) A case of ketamine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry 151:779
48. Jansen KLR (1990) Ketamine: can chronic use impair memory? Int J Addict 25:133-139
49. Jentsch JD, Tran A, Le D, Youngren KD, Roth RH (1997) Subchronic phencyclidine administration reduces mesoprefrontal dopamine utilization and impairs prefrontal cortical-dependent cognition in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 17:99
50. Jentsch JD, Roth RH (1999) The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 30:201-225
51. Jenstch JD, Roth RH, Taylor JR (2000) Object retrieval/detour deficits in monkeys produced by prior subchronic phencyclidine administration: evidence for cognitive impulsivity. Biol Psychiatry 48:415-424
52. Kegeles LS, Martinez D, Kochan LD, Hwang DR, Huang Y, Mawlawi O, Suckow RF, Van-Heertum RL, Laurelle M (2002) NMDA antagonist effects on striatal dopamine release: positron emission tomography studies in humans. Synapse 43:19-29
53. Keilhoff G, Bernstein HG, Becker A, Grecksch G, Wolf G (2004) Increased neurogenesis in a rat ketamine model of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 56:317-322
54. Kothary SP, Zsigmond EK (1977) A double-blind study of the effective antihallucinatory doses of diazepam prior to ketamine anesthesia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 21:108-109
55. Krystal JH, Karper LP, Seibyl JP, Freeman GK, Delaney R, Bremner JD, Heninger GR, Bowers MB, Charney DS (1994) Subanesthetic effects of the non-competitive NMDA-antagonist, ketamine, in humans. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:199-214
56. Krystal JH, Karper LP, Bennett A, D'Souza DC, Abi-Dargham A, Morrisey K, Charney DS (1998) Interactive effects of sub-anesthetic ketamine and subhypnotic lorazepam in humans. Psychopharmacology 135:213-299
57. Krystal JH, D'Souza DC, Karper LP, Bennett A, Abi-Dargham A, Abi-Saab D, Cassello K, Bowers MB, Vegso S, Heninger GR, Charney DS (1999) Interactive effects of subanesthetic ketamine and haloperidol in healthy humans. Psychopharmacology 145:193-204
58. Krystal JH, Bennett A, Abi-Saab D, Belger A, Karper LP, D'Souza DC, Lipschitz D, Abi-Dargham A, Charney DS (2000) Dissociation of ketamine effects on rule acquisition and rule implementation: possible relevance to NMDA receptor contributions to executive cognitive functions. Biol Psychiatry 47:137-143
59. Krystal JH, Abi-Saab W, Perry E, D'Souza C, Liu N, Gueorguieva R, McDougall L, Hunsberger T, Belger A, Levine L, Breier (2005a) Preliminary evidence of attenuation of the disruptive effects of the NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist, ketamine, on working memory by pretreatment with the group II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist, LY354740, in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology 179:303-309
60. Krystal JH, Perry EB Jr, Gueorguieva R, Belger A, Madonick SH, Abi-Dargham A, Cooper TB, MacDougall L, Abi-Saab W, D'Souza DC (2005b) Comparative and interactive human psychopharmacologic effects of ketamine and amphetamine: implications for glutamatergic and dopaminergic model psychoses and cognitive function. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:985-994
61. Lindefors N, Barati S, O'Connor WT (1997) Differential effects of single and repeated ketamine administration on dopamine, serotonin and GABA transmission in the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Brain Research 759:205-212
62. Lisman JE, Fellous J, Wang X (1998) A role for NMDA-receptor channels in working memory. Nat Neurosci 1:273-275
63. Lodge D, Johnston GA (1985) Effect of ketamine on amino acidevoked release of acetylcholine from rat cerebral cortex in vitro. Neurosci Lett 56:371-375
64. Luby ED, Cohen BD, Rosenbaum G, Gottlieb JS, Kelley R (1959) Study of a new schizophrenomimetic drug - sernyl. AMA Arch Neurol Psych 81:363-369
65. Malhotra AK, Pinals DA, Weingartner H, Sirocco K, Missar CD, Pickar D, Breier A (1996) NMDA receptor function and human cognition: the effects of ketamine in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 14:301-307
66. Malhotra A, Adler CM, Kennison SD, Elman I, Pickar D, Breier A (1997) Clozapine blunts N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist induced psychosis: a study with ketamine. Biol Psychiatry 42:664-668
67. Malhotra AK, Breier A, Goldman D, Picken L, Pickar D (1998) The apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele is associated with blunting of ketamine-induced psychosis in schizophrenia. A preliminary report. Neuropsychopharmacology 19:445-448
68. Meador-Woodruff JH, Healy DJ (2000) Glutamate receptor expression in schizophrenic brain. Brain Res Rev 31:288-294
69. Mintzer MZ, Griffiths RR (1999) Triazolam and zolpidem: effects on human memory and attentional processes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 144:8-19
70. Moghaddam B, Adams B, Verma A, Daly D (1997) Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 17:2921-2927
71. Morgan CJA, Mofeez A, Brandner B, Bromley L, Curran HV (2004a) Acute effects of ketamine on memory systems and psychotic symptoms in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 29:208-218
72. Morgan CJA, Mofeez A, Brandner B, Bromley L, Curran HV (2004b) Ketamine impairs response inhibition and is positively reinforcing in healthy volunteers: a dose response study. Psychopharmacology 172:298-308
73. Morgan CJA, Monaghan L, Curran HV (2004c) Beyond the Khole: a 3-year longitudinal investigation of the cognitive and subjective effects of ketamine in recreational users who have substantially reduced their use of the drug. Addiction 99:1450-1461
74. Morgan CJA, Ricelli M, Maitland CH, Curran HV (2004d) Long-term effects of ketamine: evidence for a persisting impairment of source memory in recreational users. Drug Alcohol Depend 75:301-308
75. Morgan CJA, Rossell SL, Pepper F, Smart J, Blackburn J, Brandner B, Curran HV (2006a) Semantic priming after ketamine acutely in healthy volunteers and following chronic self-administration in substance users. Biol Psychiatry 59:265-272
76. Morgan CJA, Perry EB, Cho HS, Krystal JH, D'Souza DC (2006b) Greater vulnerability to the amnestic effects of ketamine in males. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 187:405-414
77. Narendran R, Frankle WG, Keefe R, Gil R, Martinez D, Slifstein M, Kegeles LS, Talbot PS, Huang Y, Hwang DR, Khenissi L, Cooper TB, Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A (2005) Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational ketamine users. Am J Psychiatry 162:2352-2359
78. Nelson CL, Burk JA, Bruno JP, Martin S (2002) Effects of acute and repeated systemic administration of ketamine on prefrontal acetylcholine release and sustained attention performance in rats. Psychopharmacology 161:168-179
79. Newcomer JW, Krystal JH (2001) NMDA receptor regulation of memory and behaviour in humans. Hippocampus 11:529-542
80. Newcomer JW, Farber NB, Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Selke G, Melson AK, Hershey T, Craft S, Olney JW (1999) Ketamine-Induced NMDA receptor hypofunction as a model of memory impairment and psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 20:106-118
81. Ohno M, Yamamoto T, Watanabe S (1994) Intrahippocampal administration of a glycine site antagonist impairs working memory performance of rats. Eur J Pharmacol 253:183-187
82. Olney J, Labruyere J, Price MT (1989) Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs. Science 244:1360-1362
83. Olney J, Labruyere J, Wang G, Wozniak D, Price MT, Sesma M (1991) NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity: mechanism and prevention. Science 254:1515-1518
84. Oranje B, van Berckel BNM, Kemmer C, van Ree JM, Kahn RS, Verbaten MN (2000) The effects of a sub-anaesthetic dose of ketamine on human selective attention. Neuropsychopharmacology 22:293-302
85. Oye I, Paulsen O, Maurset A (1992) Effects of ketamine on sensory perception: evidence for a role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 260:1209-1213
86. Parwani A, Weiler MA, Blaxton TA, Warfel D, Hardin M, Frey K, Lahti AC (2005) The effects of a subanesthetic dose of ketamine on verbal memory in normal volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 183:265-274
87. Paulus MP, Hozcak NE, Zauscher BE, Frank L, Brown GG, Schuckit MA (2002) Behavioral and functional neuroimaging evidence for prefrontal dysfunction in methamphetamine-dependent subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 26:53-63
88. Petrides M, Alivisatos B, Evans AC, Meyer E (1993) Dissociation of human mid-dorsolateral from posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex in memory processing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90:873-877
89. Petrakis I, Limoncelli D, Gueorguieva R, Jaltow P, Boutros NN, Trevisan L, Gelernter J, Krystal JH (2004) Altered NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist response in individuals with a family vulnerability to alcoholism. Am J Psychiatry 1776-1782
90. Renstall J, Tully AM, Ward PJ, Kidd AG (1988) Total intravenous anesthesia for military surgery. A technique using ketamine, midazolam and vecuronium. Anaesthesia 43:46-49
91. Rossell SL, David AS (2006) Are semantic processing deficits in schizophrenia an access or a storage problem? Schizophr Res 82:121-134
92. Rossell SL, Bullmore ET, Williams SC, David AS (2001) Brain activation during automatic and controlled processing of semantic relations: a priming experiment using lexical-decision. Neuropsychologia 39:1167-1176
93. Rowland LM, Astur RS, Jung RE, Bustillo JR, Lauriello J, Yeo RA (2005) Selective cognitive impairments associated with NMDA receptor blockade in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 30:633-639
94. Rusted JM, Eaton-Williams P, Warburton DM (1991) A comparison of the effects of scopolamine and diazepam on working memory. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 105:442-445
95. Sams-Dodd F (1995) Automation of the social interaction task by a video-tracking system: behavioral effects of repeated phencyclidine treatment. J Neurosci Methods 59:157-167
96. Sams-Dodd F (1996) Phencycldine-induced stereotyped behavior and social isolation in rats. Behav Pharmacol 7:3-23
97. Saykin AJ, Gur RC, Gur RE, Mozeley PD, Mozeley LH, Resnick SM, Kester DB, Stafiniak P (1991) Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia: selective impairment in memory and learning. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48:618-624
98. Schacter DL (1999) The seven sins of memory. Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Am Psychol 54:182-203
99. Shallice T (1982) Specific impairments of planning. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 298:199-209
100. Siegel RK (1978) Phencyclidine and ketamine intoxication: a study of recreational users. In: Peterson RC, Stillman R (eds) Phencyclidine abuse: an appraisal, National Institute on Drug Abuse research monograph. NIDA, Rockville, MD, pp 119-140
101. Slamecka NA, Graf P (1978) The generation effect: delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4:592-604
102. Smith GS, Schloesser R, Brodie JD, Dewey SL, Logan J, Vitkun SA, Simokowitz P, Hurley A, Cooper T, Volkow ND, Cancro R (1998) Glutamate modulation of dopamine measured in vivo with position emission tomography (PET) and 11C raclopride in normal human subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 18:18-25
103. Steinpreis RE, Sokolowski JD, Papanikolau A, Salamone JD (1994) The effects of haloperidol and clozapine on PCP-and amphetamine-induced suppression of social behaviour in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47:579-585
104. Stone JM, Erlandsson K, Arstad E, Bressan RA, Squassante L, Teneggi V, Ell PJ, Pilowsky LS (2006) Ketamine displaces the novel NMDA receptor SPET probe [(123)I]CNS-1261 in humans in vivo. Nucl Med Biol 33:239-243
105. Tamlyn D, McKenna PJ, Mortimer AM, Lund CE, Hammond S, Baddeley AD (1992) Memory impairment in schizophrenia: its extent, affiliations and neuropsychological character. Psychol Med 22:101-115
106. Tucker MR, Hann JR, Phillips CL (1984) Subanesthetic doses of ketamine, diazepam, and nitrous oxide for adult outpatient sedation. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 42:668-672
107. Tulving E (1972) Episodic and semantic memory. In: Tulving E, Donaldson W (eds) Organization of memory. Academic Press, New York, pp 381-403
108. Tulving E (1985) How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist 40:398
109. Tulving E (1998) Neurocognitive processes of human memory. In: von Euler C, Lundbreg I, Llinas R (eds) Basic mechanisms in cognition and language. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 261-281
110. Tulving E, Markowitsch HJ (1998) Episodic and declarative memory: role of the hippocampus. Hippocampus 8:198-204
111. Umbricht D, Schmid L, Koller R, Vollenweider FX, Hell D, Javitt DC (2000) Ketamine-induced deficits in auditory and visual context-dependent processing in healthy volunteers: implications for models of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:1139-1147
112. Verma A, Moghaddam B (1997) NMDA receptor antagonists impair prefrontal cortex function as assessed via spatial delayed alternation performance in rats: modulation by dopamine. J Neurosci 16:373-379
113. Ware LA (1979) Neuropsychological functioning in users and nonusers of phencyclidine. Dissertation abstracts 5126B. South Illinois University, Carbondale
114. Weingartner HJ, Rawlings R, George DT, Eckardt M (1998) Triazolam-induced changes in alcoholic thought processes. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 138:311-317
115. White PF, Way WL, Trevor AJ (1982) Ketamine-its pharmacology and therapeutic uses. Anesthesiology 23:645-653
116. Wu JC, Buchsbaum MS, Bunney BS (1991) Positron emission tomography study of phencyclidine users as a possible drug model of schizophrenia. Jpn J Psychopharmacol 11:47-48
117. Zsigmond EK, Domino EF (1980) Clinical pharmacology and current uses of ketamine. In: Aldrite J, Stanley T (eds) Trends in intravenous anesthesia. Yearbook Medical Publishers, Chicago, IL, pp 283-328