Cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus: Classical and non-classical risk factors;Doença cardiovascular no diabetes mellitus: Análise dos fatores de risco clássicos e não-clássicos

Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 257-267

  Siqueira, Antonela F A ^a   De Almeida Pititto, Bianca ^a   Ferreira, Sandra Roberta G ^b  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Diabetes mellitus; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

EID: 34248571652     PISSN: 00042730     EISSN: 16779487     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/s0004-27302007000200014     Document Type: Review

References (92)

1. Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with or without prior myocardio infarction. N Engl J Med 1998;339:229-34.
2. Kannel WB, McGee DL. Diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors: the Framingham Study. Circulation 1979;59:8-13.
3. Kuller LH, National Diabetes Data Group. Stroke and diabetes. In: Diabetes in America. Bethesda: National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Diabetes/Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1995. p. 449-56.
4. Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, Farkouh ME, Porter JM, Sackett DL, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: a critical review. Circulation 1996;94:3026-49.
5. Dormandy JA, Rutherford RB. Management of PAD. TASC WorkingGroup. TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus. J Vasc Surg 2000;31:S1-296.
6. Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, Rami T, Brancati FL, Powe NR, et al. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Int Med 2004;141(6):421-31.
7. Smith JW, Marcus FI, Serokman R. Prognosis of patients with diabetes mellitus after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1984;54:718-21.
8. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-year cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). Diabetes Care 1993;16:434-44.
9. Thom T, Haase N, Rosamond W, Howard VJ, Rumsfeld J, Manolio T, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2006 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation 2006;113:e85-151.
10. Rosamond WD, Chambless LE, Folsom AR, Cooper LS, Conwill DE, Clegg L, et al. Trends in the incidence of myocardial infarction and in mortality due to coronary heart disease, 1987 to 1994. N Eng J Med 1998;339(13):861-7.
11. Lotufo PA. Mortalidade precoce por doenças do coração no Brasil. Comparação com outros países. Arq Bras Cardiol 1998;70(5):321-5.
12. Gu K, Cowie CC, Harris MI. Diabetes and decline in heart disease mortality in US adults. JAMA 1999;281(16):1291-7.
13. Lakka HM, Laaksonen DE, Lakka TA, Niskanen LK, Kumpusalo E, Tuomilehto J, et al. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. JAMA 2002;288:2709-16.
14. Malik S, Wong ND, Franklin SS, Kamath TV, L'Italien GJ, Pio JR, et al. Impact of the metabolic syndrome on mortality from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, and all causes in United States adults. Circulation 2004;110:1245-50.
15. Siqueira AFA, Franco LJ, Gimeno SGA, Matsumura LK, Barros Jr N, Ferreira SRG; on behalf of the JBDSG. Macrovascular disease in a Japanese-Brazilian population of high prevalence of metabolic syndrome: Associations with classical and non-classical risk factors. Atherosclerosis 2006;in press.
16. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study Research Group. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Eng J Med 2005;353:2643-53.
17. Laing SP, Swerdlow AJ, Slater SD, Burden AC, Morris A, Waugh NR, et al. Mortality from heart disease in a cohort of 23,000 patients with insulin-treated diabetes. Diabetologia 2003;46:760-5.
18. Laing SP, Swerdlow AJ, Carpenter LM, Slater SD, Burden AC, Botha JL, et al. Mortality from cerebrovascular disease in a cohort of 23,000 patients with insulin-treated diabetes. Stroke 2003;34:418-21.
19. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet 2004;364:937-52.
20. Hillary H, Aubert RE, Herman WH. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025. Prevalence, numerical estimates and projections. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1414-31.
21. Gross JL, Ferreira SRG, Oliveira JE. Glicemia pós-prandial. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab 2003;47(6):728-38.
22. The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Report of the Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 2003;26(suppl.1):S5-20.
23. Harris R, Donahue K, Rathore SS, Frame P, Woolf SH, Lohr KN. Screening adults for type 2 diabetes: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:215-29.
24. The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Follow-up report on the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2003;26:3160-7.
25. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, Eberhardt MS, Goldstein DE, Little RR, et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Diabetes Care 1998;21:518-24.
26. Barrett-Connor E, Ferrara A. Isolated postchallenge hyperglycemia and the risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in older women and men: The Rancho Bernardo Study. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1236-9.
27. Saydah SH, Miret M, Sung J, Varas C, Gause D, Brancati FL. Postchallenge hyperglycemia and mortality in a national sample of U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1397-402.
28. The DECODE Study Group. Glucose tolerance and mortality: comparison of WHO and American Diabetes Association diagnostic criteria. Lancet 1999;354:617-21.
29. Meigs JB, Nathan DM, D'Agostino RB, Wilson PWF. Fasting and postchallenge glycemia and cardiovascular disease risk. The Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1845-50.
30. Klein R. Hyperglycemia and microvascular and macrovascular disease in diabetes. Diabetes Care 1995;18(2):258-68.
31. Laakso M. Hyperglycemia and cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 1999;48:937-42.
32. Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderon TJ. Improved endothelial function with metformin in diet-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:1344-50.
33. Quinones MJ, Hernandez-Pampaloni M, Schelbert H, Bulnes-Enriquez I, Jimenez X, Hernandez G, et al. Coronary vasomotor abnormalities in insulin-resistant individuals. Ann Int Med 2004;140:700-8.
34. Nordt TK, Schneider DJ, Sobel BE. Augmentation of the synthesis of plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 by precursors of insulin. A potential risk factor for vascular disease. Circulation 1994;89:321-30.
35. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Mauriege P, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, Lupien PJ, et al. Fasting insulin and apolipoprotein B levels and low-density lipoprotein particle size as risk factors for ischemic heart disease. JAMA 1998;279:1955-61.
36. Boyne MS, Saudek CD. Effect of insulin therapy on macrovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22(3S):C45-53.
37. Kannel WB, Dawber TR, Kagan A, Revotskie N. Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease - six-year follow-up experience. The Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med 1961;55:33-50.
38. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB. Find the total point score on the bottom table to determine the 10-year risk of CHD. Circulation 1998;97:1837-47.
39. Folsom AR, Chambless LE, Ballantyne CM, Coresh J, Heiss G, Wu KK, et al. An assessment of incremental coronary risk prediction using C-reactive protein and other novel risk markers: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1368-73.
40. Siqueira AFA, Abdalla, DSP, Ferreira SRG. LDL: da síndrome metabólica à instabilização da placa aterosclerótica. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab 2006;50:334-43.
41. Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-97.
42. Zambon A, Hokanson JE, Brown BG, Brunzell JD. Evidence for a new pathophysiological mechanism for coronary artery disease regression: hepatic lipase-mediated changes in LDL density. Circulation 1999;99(15):1959-64.
43. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 1989;320(14):915-24.
44. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Patterson JK. Cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prediabetic individuals. Does the clock for coronary heart disease start ticking before the onset of clinical diabetes? JAMA 1990;263:2893-8.
45. Lu W, Resnick HE, Jablonski KA, Jones KL, Jain AK, Howard WJ, et al. Non-HDL cholesterol as a predictor of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: The Strong Heart Study. Diabetes Care 2003;26:16-23.
46. Garg A, Grundy SM. Management of dyslipidemia in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1990;13:153-69.
47. Pyorala K, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Faergeman O, Olsson AG, Thorgeirsson G. Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease. A subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care 1997;20:614-20.
48. Goldberg RB, Mellies MJ, Sacks FM, Moyé LA, Howard BV, Howard WJ, et al.; for the CARE Investigators. Cardiovascular events and their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and glucose-intolerant myocardial infarction survivors with average cholesterol levels subgroup analyses in the Cholesterol And Recurrent Events (CARE) trial. Circulation 1998;98:2513-9.
49. Turner R, Holman R, Stratton I, Cull C, Frighi V, Manley S, et al. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998;317:703-13.
50. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HAW, Yudkin JS, Matthews DR, Cull CA, et al.; on behalf of the UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321:412-9.
51. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HL, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo, Jr JL, et al.; for the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. JAMA 2003;289:2560-72.
52. HOPE Study. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Lancet 2000;355:253-9.
53. Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Beevers G, de Faire U, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:1004-10.
54. Kuller LH, Becker DJ, Drash AL. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus mortality: The risk of cigarette smoking. Circulation 1990;82:37-43.
55. Al-Delaimy WK, Willett WC, Manson JE, Speizer FE, Hu FB. Smoking and mortality among women with type 2 diabetes. The Nurses' Health Study cohort. Diabetes Care 2001;24:2043-8.
56. Facchini FS, Hollenbeck CB, Jeppesen J, Chen YD, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance and cigarette smoking. Lancet 1992;339:1128-30.
57. Ajani UJ, Gaziano JM, Lotufo PA, Liu S, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease by diabetes status. Circulation 2000;102:500-5.
58. Gregg EW, Gerzoff RB, Caspersen CJ, Williamson DF, Narayan KMV. Relationship of walking to mortality among US adults with diabetes. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1440-7.
59. Hu G, Eriksson J, Barengo NC, Lakka TA, Valle TT, Nissinen A, et al. Occupational, commuting, and leisure-time physical activity in relation to total and cardiovascular mortality among Finnish subjects with type 2 diabetes. Circulation 2004;110:666-73.
60. American Diabetes Association. Diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care 2003;26(S1):S94-8.
61. Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, Bosch J, Yusuf S. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes. Diabetes Care 2000;23:B35-9.
62. Gerstein HC, Mann JFE, Yi O, Zinman B, Dinneen SF, Hoogwerf B, et al.; for the HOPE study investigators. Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals. JAMA 2001;286:421-6.
63. Karalliedde J, Viberti G. Microalbuminuria and cardiovascular risk. Am J Hypertens 2004;17:986-93.
64. Rosenbaum P, Gimeno SG, Sanudo A, Franco LJ, Ferreira SRG. Independent impact of glycemia and blood pressure in albuminuria on high-risk subjects for metabolic syndrome. Clin Nephrol 2004;61:369-76.
65. Wachtell K, Ibsen H, Olsen MH, Borch-Johnsen K, Lindholm LH, Mogensen CE, et al. Albuminuria and cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: The LIFE Study. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:901-6.
66. Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J. Metabolic syndrome - a new world-wide definition. A consensus statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabet Med 2006;23:469-80.
67. Mohamed-Ali V, Goodrick S, Rawesh A, Katz DR, Miles JM, Yudkin JS, et al. Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alfa, in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:4196-200.
68. Visser M, Bouter LM, McQuillan GM, Wener MH, Harris TB. Elevated C-reactive protein levels in overweight and obese adults. JAMA 1999;282:2131-5.
69. Ross R. Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340:115-26.
70. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hannekens CH. Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation 2000;101:1767-72.
71. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, Tracy RP, Hennekens CH. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and the risk of developing peripheral vascular disease. Circulation 1998;97:425-8.
72. Koening W, Sund M, Frohlich M, Fischer H, Lowel H, Doring A, et al. C-reactive protein, a sensitive marker of inflammation, predicts future risk of coronary heart disease in initially healthy middle-aged men: Results from the MONICA (Monitoring Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease) Augsburg Cohort Study, 1984 to 1992. Circulation 1999;99:237-42.
73. Albert CM, Jing Ma, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Ridker PM. Prospective study of C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and plasma lipid levels as predictors of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 2002;105:2595-9.
74. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med 2000;342:836-43.
75. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, Buring JE, Cook NR. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1557-65.
76. Best JG, Zhang Y, Lee ET, Yeh J, Cowan L, Palmieri V, et al. C-reactive protein as a predictor of cardiovascular risk in a population with a high prevalence of diabetes. The Strong Heart Study. Circulation 2005;112:1289-95.
77. Redberg RF, Greenland P, Fuster V, Pyörälä K, Blair SN, Folsom AR, et al. Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Writing group III: Risk assessment in persons with diabetes. Circulation 2002;105:e144.
78. Grundy SM, Benjamin IJ, Burke JL, Chait A, Eckel RH, Howard BV, et al. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 1999;100:1134-46.
79. American Diabetes Association: Consensus development conference on the diagnosis of coronary artery disease in people with diabetes (Consensus Statement). Diabetes Care 1998;2:1551-9.
80. Gibbons LW, Mitchell TL, Wei M, Blair SN, Cooper KH. Maximal exercise test as a predictor of risk for mortality from coronary heart disease in asymptomatic men. Am J Cardiol 2000;86:53-8.
81. Laukkanen JA, Kurl S, Lakka TA, Tuomainen TP, Rauramaa R, Salonen Rl, et al. Exercise-induced silent myocardial ischemia and coronary morbidity and mortality in middle-aged men. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:72-9.
82. O'Rourke RA, Brundage BH, Froelicher VF, Greenland P, Grundy SM, Hachamovitch R, et al. American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Expert Consensus document on electron-beam computed tomography for the diagnosis and prognosis of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2000;102:126-40.
83. Haberl R, Becker A, Leber A, Knez A, Becker C, Lang C, et al. Correlation of coronary calcification and angiographically documented stenoses in patients with suspected coronary artery disease: results of 1,764 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:451-7.
84. Pletcher MJ, Tice JA, Pignone M, Browner WS. Using the coronary artery calcium score to predict coronary heart disease events. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:1285-92.
85. Can U, Furie KL, Suwanwela N, Southern JF, Macdonald NR, Ogilvy CS, et al. Transcranila doppler ultrasound criteria for hemodynamically significant internal carotid artery stenosis based on residual lumen diameter calculated from en bloc carotid endarterectomy specimens. Stroke 1997;28:1966-71.
86. Hankey GJ, Warlow CP, Sellar RJ. Cerebral angiographic risk in mild cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1990;21:209-22.
87. Beckman JA, Higgins CO, Gerhard-Herman M. Automated oscillometric determination of the ankle-brachial index provides accuracy necessary for office practice. Hypertension 2006;47:35-38.
88. Sacks D, Bakal CW, Beatty PT, Becker GJ, Cardella JF, Raabe RD, et al. Position statement on the use of the ankle brachial index in the evaluation of patients with peripheral vascular disease. A Consensus statement developed by the Standards Division of the Society of Interventional Radiology. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003;14:S389.
89. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837-53.
90. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998;352(9131):854-65.
91. Gæde P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GVH, Parving H, Pedersen O. Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2003;348:383-93.
92. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJ, Erdmann E, Massi-Benedetti M, Moules IK, et al.; for the PROactive investigators. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366(9493):1279-89.