The metabolic syndrome: An exercise in utility or futility?

Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research and Reviews

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 3-21

  Sadikot, S M ^a   Misra, A ^a  

^a NONE   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; GLITAZONE DERIVATIVE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; INSULIN SENSITIZING AGENT; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; NICOTINIC ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR AGONIST; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFICACY; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERINSULINEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERURICEMIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREDICTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SEX DIFFERENCE; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

EID: 34248195400     PISSN: 18714021     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2006.11.001     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Kylin E. Studien uber das Hypertonie-Hyperglyka 'mie-Hyperurika' Miesyndrom. Zentralbl Inn Med 44 (1923) 105-127
2. Vague J. La differenciation sexuelle, facteur determinant des formes de l'obesite'. Presse Medl 53 (1947) 339-340
3. Vague J. The degree of masculine differentiation of obesities: a factor determining predisposition to diabetes, atherosclerosis, gout, and uric calculous disease. Am J Clin Nutr 4 (1956) 20-34
4. Vague J., Vague P., and Jubelin J. A 35-year follow up of diabetogenic obesity. Int J Obes 11 Suppl. 2 (1985) 38
5. Avogaro P., and Crepaldi G. Essential hyperlipidemia, obesity and diabetes. Diabetologia 1 (1965) 137
6. Camus J. Goutte, diabéte, hyperlipémie: un trisyndrome métabolique. Rev Rheumatol 33 (1966) 10-14
7. Pyorala K. Relationship of glucose tolerance and plasma insulin to the incidence of coronary heart disease: results from two population studies in Finland. Diabetes Care 2 (1979) 131-141
8. Modan M., Halkin H., Almog S., Eshkol A., Shefi M., Shitrit A., et al. Hyperinsulinemia. A link between hypertension, obesity, and glucose intolerance. J Clin Invest 75 (1985) 809-817
9. Modan M., Halkin H., Karasik A., and Lusky A. Elevated serum uric acid-a facet of hyperinsulinaemia. Diabetologia 30 (1987) 713-718
10. Reaven G. Banting lecture. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 37 (1988) 1595-1607
11. World Health Organization. Defi{ligature}nition, diagnosis and classifi{ligature}cation of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Report of a WHO consultation; 1999.
12. Balkau B., and Charles M. Comment on the provisional report from the WHO consultation. European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance (EGIR). Diabet Med 16 (1999) 442-443
13. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-97.
14. Einhorn D., Reaven G., Cobin R., Ford E., Ganda O., Handelsman Y., et al. American College of Endocrinology position statement on the insulin resistance syndrome. Endocr Pract 9 (2003) 237-252
15. International Diabetes Federation. The IDF consensus worldwide definition of the metabolic syndrome. Available at http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/IDF_Metasyndrome_definition.pdf [last accessed August 16, 2006].
16. Grundy S., Cleeman J., Daniels S., Donato K., Eckel R., Franklin B., et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute scientific statement. Circulation 112 (2005) 2735-2752
17. Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults-the Evidence Report. National Institutes of Health. Obes Res 1998;6(Suppl. 2):51S-209S.
18. Kahn R., Buse J., Ferrannini E., and Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal: joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetologia 48 (2005) 1684-1699
19. Kahn R., Buse J., Ferrannini E., and Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal: joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 2289-2304
20. Kahn R. The metabolic syndrome (emperor) wears no clothes. Diabetes Care 29 (2006) 1693-1696
21. Gale E. The myth of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia 48 (2005) 1679-1683
22. Vinicor F., and Bowman B. The metabolic syndrome: the emperor needs some consistent clothes: response to Davidson and Alexander. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 1243
23. Greenland P. Critical questions about the metabolic syndrome. Circulation 112 (2005) 3675-3676
24. Meigs J. The metabolic syndrome: may be a guidepost or detour to preventing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. BMJ 327 (2003) 61-62
25. Reaven G. Insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, and the metabolic syndrome: how well do the emperor's clothes fit?. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 1011-1012
26. Reaven G. The metabolic syndrome: requiescat in pace. Clin Chem 51 (2005) 931-938
27. Reaven G. Counterpoint: just being alive is not good enough. Clin Chem 51 (2005) 1354-1357
28. Reaven G. The metabolic syndrome: is this diagnosis necessary?. Am J Clin Nutr 83 (2006) 1237-1247
29. Davidson M. Metabolic syndrome/insulin resistance syndrome/pre-diabetes: new section in Diabetes Care (Editorial). Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 3179
30. Alexander C. The coming of age of the metabolic syndrome (Editorial). Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 3180-3181
31. Zimmet P, Alberti G. The metabolic syndrome: perhaps an etiologic mystery but far from a myth-where does the International Diabetes Federation stand? Medscape Diabetes Endocrinol 2005;7(2). Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/514211 [accessed August 24, 2006].
32. Bloomgarden Z. The Endocrine Society meeting: topics in insulin sensitivity and hypertension. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 2679-2688
33. Reaven G. The metabolic syndrome or the insulin resistance syndrome? Different names, different concepts, and different goals. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 33 (2004) 283-303
34. Grundy S, Haffner S, Kunos G, Jensen M. Managing Cardiometabolic risk: will new approaches improve success? Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewprogram/5700_pnt [last accessed September 2, 2006].
35. International Diabetes Federation. Rationale for new IDF worldwide definition of metabolic Syndrome. Available at http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/Metabolic_syndrome_rationale.pdf [last accessed August 16, 2006].
36. Zimmet P., Alberti G., and Shaw J. Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature 414 (2001) 782-787
37. Zimmet P., Alberti G., and Shaw J. Mainstreaming the metabolic syndrome: a definitive definition. This new definition should assist both researchers and clinicians. Med J Aust 183 (2005) 175-176
38. Grundy S. Does a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome have value in clinical practice?. Am J Clin Nutr 83 (2006) 1248-1251
39. Grundy S. Does the metabolic syndrome exist?. Diabetes Care 29 (2006) 1689-1692
40. Wang J., Thornton J., Bari S., Williamson B., Gallagher D., Heymsfield S., et al. Comparisons of waist circumferences measured at 4 sites. Am J Clin Nutr 77 (2003) 379-384
41. Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Follow-up report on the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 11 (2003) 3160-3167
42. Lakka H., Laaksonen D., Lakka T., Niskanen L., Kumpusalo E., Tuomilehto J., et al. The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men. JAMA 288 (2002) 2709-2716
43. Malik S., Wong N., Franklin S., Kamath T., L'Italien G., Pio J., et al. Impact of the metabolic syndrome on mortality from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease and on all causes in United States adults. Circulation 110 (2004) 1245-1250
44. Stern M., Williams K., and Hunt K. Impact on diabetes/metabolic syndrome in patients with established cardiovascular disease. Atheroscler Suppl 6 (2005) 3-6
45. Hunt K.J., Resendez R.G., Williams K., et al. National Cholesterol Education Program versus World Health Organization metabolic syndrome in relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the San Antonio Heart Study. Circulation 110 (2004) 1251-1257
46. McNeill A., Rosamond W., Girman C., Golden S., Schmidt M., East H., et al. The metabolic syndrome and 11-year risk of incident cardiovascular disease in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 385-390
47. Stern S., Williams K., Ferrannini E., Defronzo R., Bogardus C., and Stern M. Identification of individuals with insulin resistance using routine clinical measurements. Diabetes 54 (2005) 333-339
48. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285 (2001) 2486-2497
49. Pearson T., Blair S., Daniels S., Eckel R., Fair J., Fortmann S., et al. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. AHA guidelines for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke: 2002 update: consensus panel guide to comprehensive risk reduction for adult patients without coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular diseases. Circulation 106 (2002) 388-391
50. Chobanian A., Bakris G., Black H., Cushman W., Green L., Izzo J., et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289 (2003) 2560-2572
51. Bloomgarden Z. The Endocrine Society meeting: topics in insulin sensitivity and hypertension. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 2679-2688
52. Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Follow-up report on the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 3160-3167
53. WHO Expert Consultation. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet 363 (2004) 157-163
54. Kannel W., and Larson M. Long-term epidemiologic prediction of coronary disease. The Framingham experience. Cardiology 83 (1993) 137-152
55. Eckel R., Grundy S., and Zimmet P. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 365 (2005) 1415-1428
56. Grundy S.M. Metabolic syndrome: connecting and reconciling cardiovascular and diabetes worlds. J Am Coll Cardiol 47 (2006) 1093-1100
57. Sattar N., Gaw A., Scherbakova O., Ford I., O'Reilly D., Haffner S., et al. Metabolic syndrome with and without C-reactive protein as a predictor of coronary heart disease and diabetes in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study. Circulation 108 (2003) 414-419
58. Girman C., Rhodes T., Mercuri M., Pyorala K., Kjekshus J., Pedersen T., et al., 4S Group and the AFCAPS/TexCAPS Research Group. The metabolic syndrome and risk of major coronary events in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) and the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS). Am J Cardiol 93 (2004) 136-141
59. Olijhoek J., van der Graaf Y., Banga J., Algra A., Rabelink T., Visseren F., and the SMART Study Group. The metabolic syndrome is associated with advanced vascular damage in patients with coronary heart disease, stroke, peripheral arterial disease or abdominal aortic aneurysm. Eur Heart J 25 (2004) 342-348
60. Alexander C., Landsman P., Teutsch S., and Haffner S. Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III); National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP), NCEP-defined metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and prevalence of coronary heart disease among NHANES III participants age 50 years and older. Diabetes 52 (2003) 1210-1214
61. Ninomiya J., L'Italien G., Criqui M., Whyte J., Gamst A., and Chen R. Association of the metabolic syndrome with history of myocardial infarction and stroke in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation 109 (2004) 42-46
62. Solymoss B., Bourassa M., Lesperance J., Levesque S., Marcil M., Varga S., et al. Incidence and clinical characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in patients with coronary artery disease. Coron Artery Dis 14 (2003) 207-212
63. Turhan H., Yasar A., Basar N., Bicer A., Erbay A., and Yetkin E. High prevalence of metabolic syndrome among young women with premature coronary artery disease. Coron Artery Dis 16 (2005) 37-40
64. Lempiainen P., Mykkanen L., Pyorala K., Laakso M., and Kuusisto J. Insulin resistance syndrome predicts coronary heart disease events in elderly non-diabetic men. Circulation 100 (1999) 123-128
65. Kekalainen P., Sarlund H., Pyorala K., and Laakso M. Hyperinsulinemia cluster predicts the development of type 2 diabetes independent of a family history of diabetes. Diabetes Care 22 (1999) 86-92
66. Pyorala M., Miettinen H., Halonen P., Laakso M., and Pyorala K. Insulin resistance syndrome predicts the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in healthy middle-aged men: the 22-year follow-up results of the Helsinki Policemen Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20 (2000) 538-544
67. Kuusisto J., Lempiainen P., Mykkanen L., and Laakso M. Insulin resistance syndrome predicts coronary heart disease events in elderly type 2 diabetic men. Diabetes Care 24 (2001) 1629-1633
68. Onat A., Ceyhan K., Basar O., Erer B., Tobrak S., and Sansoy V. Metabolic syndrome: major impact on coronary risk in a population with low cholesterol levels: a prospective and cross-sectional evaluation. Atherosclerosis 165 (2002) 285-292
69. Ford E. The metabolic syndrome and mortality from cardiovascular disease and all-causes: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II Mortality Study. Atherosclerosis 173 (2004) 309-314
70. Scuteri A., Najjar S., Morrel C., and Lakatta E. The metabolic syndrome in older individuals: prevalence and prediction of cardiovascular events. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 882-887
71. Fuller J., Shipley M., Rose G., Jarrett R., and Keen H. Coronary heart disease risk and impaired glucose tolerance: the Whitehall Study. Lancet 1 (1980) 1373-1376
72. Lippel K., Tyroler H., Eder H., Gotto A., and Vahouny G. Relationship of hypertriglyceridemia to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 1 (1981) 406-417
73. Miller G., and Miller N. Plasma high density lipoprotein concentration and development of ischemic heart disease. Lancet 1 (1975) 16-19
74. Keys A., Aravanis C., Blackburn H., Van Buchem F., Buzina R., Djordjevic B., et al. Coronary heart disease: overweight and obesity as risk factors. Ann Intern Med 77 (1972) 15-27
75. Lewington S., Clarke R., Qizilbash N., Peto R., and Collins R. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies: Prospective Studies Collaboration. Lancet 360 (2002) 1903-1913
76. Kannel W., and McGee D. Diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors in the Framingham study. Circulation 59 (1979) 8-13
77. Assmann G., Cullen P., and Schulte H. Simple scoring scheme for calculating the risk of acute coronary events based on the 10-year follow-up of the Prospective Cardiovascular Munster (PROCAM) study. Circulation 105 (2002) 310-315
78. Ferrario M., Chiodini P., Chambless L., Cessana G., Vanuzzo D., Pannico S., et al., for the CUORE Project Research Group. Prediction of coronary events in a low incidence population: assessing accuracy of the CUORE cohort study prediction equation. Int J Epidemiol 34 (2005) 413-421
79. Cooper J., Miller G., and Humphries S. A comparison of the PROCAM and Framingham point-scoring systems for estimation of individual risk of coronary heart disease in the Second Northwick Park Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 181 (2005) 93-100
80. Stephens J., Ambler G., Vallance P., Betteridge D., Humphries S., and Hurel S. Cardiovascular risk and diabetes: are the methods of risk prediction satisfactory?. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 11 (2004) 521-528
81. Lindstrom J., and Tuomilehto J. The diabetes risk score: a practical tool to predict type 2 diabetes risk. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 725-731
82. Stevens R., Kothari V., Adler A., and Stratton I. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group: the UKPDS risk engine: a model for the risk of coronary heart disease in type II diabetes (UKPDS 56). Clin Sci (Lond) 101 (2001) 671-679
83. McNeely M., Boyko E., Leonetti D., Kahn S., and Fujimoto W. Comparison of a clinical model, the oral glucose tolerance test, and fasting glucose for prediction of type 2 diabetes risk in Japanese Americans. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 758-763
84. Meigs J. Metabolic syndrome: in search of a clinical role. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 2761-2763
85. Stern M., Williams K., Gonzalez-Villalpando C., Hunt K., and Haffner S. Does the metabolic syndrome improve identification of individuals at risk of type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease?. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 2676-2681
86. Hunt K., Resendez R., Williams K., Haffner S., and Stern M. National Cholesterol Education Program versus World Health Organization metabolic syndrome in relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the San Antonio Heart Study. Circulation 110 (2004) 1251-1257
87. Wannamethee S., Shaper A., Lennon L., and Morris R. Metabolic syndrome vs Framingham Risk Score for prediction of coronary heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 165 (2005) 2644-2650
88. Isomaa B., Almgren P., Tuomi T., Forsen B., Lahti K., Nissen M., et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 24 (2001) 683-689
89. de Simone G. State of the heart in the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 15 (2005) 239-241
90. Kohli P., and Greenland P. Role of the metabolic syndrome in risk assessment for coronary heart disease. JAMA 295 (2006) 819-821
91. Vasan R., Sullivan L., Wilson P., Sempos C., Sundstrom J., Kannel W., et al. Relative importance of borderline and elevated levels of coronary heart disease risk factors. Ann Intern Med 142 (2005) 393-402
92. Wilson P., D'Agostino R., Levy D., Belanger A., Silbershatz H., and Kannel W. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 97 (1998) 1837-1847
93. Voss R., Cullen P., Schulte H., and Assmann G. Prediction of risk of coronary events in middle-aged men in the Prospective Cardiovascular Munster Study (PROCAM) using neural networks. Int J Epidemiol 31 (2002) 1253-1262
94. Grundy S. Does the metabolic syndrome exist?. Diabetes Care 29 (2006) 1689-1692
95. Grundy S., Cleeman J., Merz C., Brewer Jr. H., Clark L., Hunninghake D., et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American College of Cardiology Foundation; American Heart Association, Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Circulation 110 (2004) 227-239
96. Executive summary of the clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:855-67.
97. Julius S., Majahalme S., and Palatini P. Antihypertensive treatment of patients with diabetes and hypertension. Am J Hypertens 14 (2001) 310S-316S
98. Evans R., Barish G., and Wang Y. PPARs and the complex journey to obesity. Nat Med 10 (2004) 55-61
99. Tuck M. Angiotensin-receptor blocking agents and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma system. Curr Hypertens Rep 7 (2005) 240-243
100. Dean B., Borenstein J., Henning J., Knight K., and Merz C. Can change in HDL-cholesterol reduce cardiovascular risk?. Am Heart J 147 (2004) 966-976
101. Rubins H. Triglycerides and coronary heart disease: implications of recent clinical trials. J Cardiovasc Risk 7 (2000) 339-345
102. King H., Aubert R.E., and Herman W.H. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections. Diabetes Care 21 (1998) 1414-1431
103. Reddy K.S., and Yusuf S. Emerging epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing countries. Circulation 97 (1998) 596-601