The metabolic syndrome: Is this diagnosis necessary?

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Volumn 83, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 1237-1247

  Reaven, Gerald M ^a,b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Insulin resistance; Metabolic syndrome

Indexed keywords

GLUCOSE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; INSULIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR; PROCOAGULANT; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

BLOOD PRESSURE; BODY FAT; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE COURSE; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; MEDICAL SOCIETY; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PEDAGOGICS; POSTPRANDIAL STATE; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ADULT; BLOOD; CHILD; FEMALE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; MALE; METABOLISM; MIDDLE AGED; RISK FACTOR;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ADULT; BLOOD GLUCOSE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMANS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; MALE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MIDDLE AGED; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS; TRIGLYCERIDES;

EID: 33745603792     PISSN: 00029165     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1237     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Reaven G. The metabolic syndrome or the insulin resistance syndrome? Different names, different concepts, and different goals. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2004;33:283-303.
2. Kim SH, Reaven GM. The metabolic syndrome: one step forward, two steps back. Diabetes Vasc Dis Res 2004;1:68-76.
3. Reaven GM. The metabolic syndrome: requiescat in pace. Clin Chem 2005;51:931-8.
4. Reaven GM. Counterpoint: Just being alive is not good enough. Clin Chem 51:1354-7.
5. Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998;15:539-53.
6. Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-97.
7. The IDF consensus worldwide definition of the metabolic syndrome. Part 1. Worldwide definition for use in clinical practice. Internet: www.idf.org (accessed 28 July 2005).
8. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute scientific statement. Curr Opin Cardiol 2006;21:1-6.
9. Himsworth HP, Kerr RB. Insulin-sensitive and insulin-insensitive types of diabetes mellitus. Clin Sci 1939;4:119-52.
10. Himsworth HP. The syndrome of diabetes mellitus and its causes. Lancet 1949;1:465-73.
11. Shen S-W, Reaven GM, Farquha JW. Comparison of impedance to insulin mediated glucose uptake in normal and diabetic subjects. J Clin Invest 1970;49:2151-60.
12. Ginsberg H, Kimmerling G, Olefsky JM, Reaven GM. Demonstration of insulin resistance in untreated adult onset diabetic subjects with fasting hyperglycemia. J Clin Invest 1975;55:454-61.
13. Kimmerling G, Javorski WC, Olefsky JM, Reaven GM. Locating the site(s) of insulin resistance in patients with nonketotic diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1976;25:673-8.
14. DeFronzo R, Deibert D, Hendler R, Felig P, Soman V. Insulin sensitivity and insulin binding to monocytes in maturity-onset diabetes. J Clin Invest 1979;63:939-46.
15. Kolterman OG, Gray RS, Griffin J, et al. Receptor and postreceptor defects contribute to the insulin resistance in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest 1981;68.957-69.
16. Reaven GM. Insulin resistance in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Does it exist and can it be measured? Am J Med 1983;74:3-17.
17. Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ, King HOM, Coventry JS. Plasma insulin response among Nauruans: prediction of deterioration in glucose tolerance over 6 yr. Diabetes 1987;36:179-86.
18. Saad MF, Pettit DJ, Mott DM, Knowler WC, Nelson RG, Bennett PH. Sequential changes in serum insulin concentration during development of non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet 1989;1:1356-9.
19. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Mitchell BD, Hazua HP, Patterson JK. Incidence of type II diabetes in Mexican Americans predicted by fasting insulin and glucose levels, obesity and body-fat distribution. Diabetes 1990;39:283-8.
20. Lillioja S, Mott DM, Spraul M, Et al. Insulin resistance and insulin secretory dysfunction as precursors of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1988-92.
21. Warram JH, Martin BC, Krolewski AS, Soeldner JS, Kahn CR. Slow glucose removal rate and hyperinsulinemia precede the development of type II diabetes in the offspring of the diabetic parents. Ann Intern Med 1990;113:909-12.
22. Reaven GM, Brand RJ, Chen Y-DI, Mathur AK, Goldfine I. Insulin resistance and insulin secretion are determinants of oral glucose tolerance in normal individuals. Diabetes 1993;42:1224-32.
23. Zavaroni I, Dall'Aglio E, Bonora E, Alpi O, Passeri M, Reaven GM. Evidence that multiple risk factors for coronary artery disease exist in persons with abnormal glucose tolerance. Am J Med 1987;83:609-12.
24. Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988;37:1595-607.
25. Zavaroni I, Bonora E, Pagliara M, et al. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in healthy persons with hyperinsulinemia and normal glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 1989;320:702-6.
26. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Patterson JK. Cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prediabetic individuals. Does the clock for coronary heart disease start ticking before the onset of clinical diabetes? JAMA 1990;263:2893-8.
27. Reaven GM, Lerner RL, Stern MP, Farquhar JW. Role of insulin in endogenous hypertriglyceridemia. J Clin Invest 1967;46:1756-67.
28. Olefsky JM, Farquhar JW, Reaven GM. Reappraisal of the role of insulin in hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Med 1974;57:551-60.
29. Reaven GM. The insulin resistance syndrome. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2003;5:364-71.
30. Laws A, Reaven GM. Evidence for an independent relationship between insulin resistance and fasting plasma HDL-cholesterol, triglyceride and insulin concentrations. J Intern Med 1992;231:25-30.
31. Reaven GM, Chen Y-DI, Jeppesen J, Maheux P, Krauss RM. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in individuals with small, dense, low density lipoprotein particles. J Clin Invest 1993;92:141-6.
32. Jeppesen J, Hollenbeck CB, Zhou M-Y, et al. Relation between insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, postheparin plasma lipoprotein lipase activity, and postprandial lipemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:320-4.
33. Abbasi F, McLaughlin T, Lamendola C, et al. Fasting remnant lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations are elevated in nondiabetic, insulin-resistant, female volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3903-6.
34. Castelli WP, Doyle JT, Gordon T, et al. HDL cholesterol and other lipids in coronary heart disease. Circulation 1977;55:767-72.
35. Austin MA, Breslow JL, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Willett WS, Krauss RM. Low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA 1988;260:1917-21.
36. Manninen V, Tenkanen L, Koskinen P, et al. Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki heart study: implications for treatment. Circulation 1992;85:37-45.
37. Assmann G, Schulte H. Relation of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides to incidence of atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (the PROCAM experience). Am J Cardiol 1992;70:733-7.
38. Patsch JR, Miesenbock G, Hopferwieser T, et al. Relation of triglyceride metabolism and coronary artery disease: studies in the postprandial state. Arterioscler Thromb 1992;12:1336-45.
39. Karpe F, Bard JM, Steiner G, Carlson LA, Fruchart JC, Hamsten A. HDLsand alimentary lipemia: studies in men with previous myocardial infarction at young age. Arterioscler Thromb 1993;13:11-22.
40. Tobey TA, Greenfield M, Kraemer F, Reaven GM. Relationship between insulin resistance, insulin secretion, very low density lipoprotein kinetics, and plasma triglyceride levels in normotriglyceridemic man. Metabolism 1981;30:165-71.
41. Nestel PJ. Relationship between plasma triglycerides and removal of chylomicrons. J Clin Invest 1964;43:943-9.
42. Kim H-S, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, McLaughlin T, Reaven GM. Effect of insulin resistance on postprandial elevations of remnant lipoprotein concentrations in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:592-5.
43. Chen Y-DI, Swami S, Skowronski R, Coulston AM, Reaven GM. Differences in postprandial lipemia between patients with normal glucose tolerance and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76:172-7.
44. Swenson TL. The role of the cholesteryl ester transfer protein in lipoprotein metabolism. Diabetes Metab Rev 1991;7:139-53.
45. Fidge N, Nestel P, Ishikawa T, et al. Turnover of apoproteins A-I and A-II of high density lipoprotein and the relationship to other lipoproteins in normal and hyperlipidemic individuals. Metabolism 1980;29:643-53.
46. Chen Y-DI, Sheu WH-H, Swislocki ALM, Reaven GM. High density lipoprotein turnover in patients with hypertension. Hypertension 1991;17:386-93.
47. Golay A, Zech L, Shi M-Z, Chiou, Y-AM, Reaven GM, Chen Y-DI. High density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: measurement of HDL turnover using tritiated HDL. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;65:512-8.
48. Brinton EA, Eisenberg S, Breslow JL. Human HDL cholesterol levels are determined by apoA-I fractional catabolic rate, which correlates inversely with estimates of HDL particle size. Effects of gender, hepatic and lipoprotein lipases, triglyceride and insulin levels, and body fat distribution. Arterioscler Thromb 1994;14:707-20.
49. Steiner G. Lipoprotein lipase in fat-induced hyperlipemia. N Engl J Med 1968;279:70-4.
50. Ferrannini E, Buzzigoli G, Bonadona R. Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med 1987;317:350-7.
51. Shen D-C, Shieh S-M, Fuh M, Wu D-A, Chen Y-DI, Reaven GM. Resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in patients with hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;66:580-3.
52. Swislocki ALM, Hoffman BB, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and hyperinsulinemia in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1989;2:419-23.
53. Ferrari P, Weidmann P, Shaw S, et al. Altered Insulin sensitivity, hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia in individuals with a hypertensive parent. Am J Med 1991;91:589-96.
54. Facchini F, Chen Y-DI, Clinkingbeard C, Jeppesen J, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, and dyslipidemia in nonobese individuals with a family history of hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1992;5:694-9.
55. Allemann Y, Horber FF, Colombo M, et al. Insulin sensitivity and body fat distribution in normotensive offspring of hypertensive parents. Lancet 1993;341:327-31.
56. Skarfors ET, Lithell HO, Selinus I. Risk factors for the development of hypertension: a 10-year longitudinal study in middle-aged men. J Hypertension 1991;9:217-23.
57. Lissner L, Bengtsson C, Lapidus L, Kristjansson K, Wedel H. Fasting insulin in relation to subsequent blood pressure changes and hypertension in women. Hypertension 1992;20:797-801.
58. Taittonen L, Uhari M, Nuutinen M, Turtinen J, Pokka T, Akerblom HK. Insulin and blood pressure among healthy children. Am J Hypertens 1996;9:193-9.
59. Raitakari OT, Porkka KVK, Rönnemaa T, et al. The role of insulin in clustering of serum lipids and blood pressure in children and adolescents. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Diabetologia 1995;38:1042-50.
60. Zavaroni I, Mazza S, Dall'Aglio E, Gasparini P, Passeri M, Reaven GM. Prevalence of hyperinsulinaemia in patients with high blood pressure. J Intern Med 1992;231:235-40.
61. Sheuh WH-H, Jeng C-Y, Shieh S-M, et al. Insulin resistance and abnormal electrocardiograms in patients with high blood pressure. Am J Hypertens 1992;5:444-8.
62. Jeppesen J, Hein HO, Suadicani P, Gynterberg F. Low triglycerides-high high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and risk of ischemic heart disease. Arch Intern Med 2001;16:361-6.
63. Hamsten A, Wiman B, Defaire U, Blomback M. Increased plasma level of a rapid inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator in young survivors of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1557-63.
64. Juhan-Vague I, Alessi MC, Vague P. Increased plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 levels. A possible link between insulin resistance and atherothrombosis. Diabetologia 1991;34:457-62.
65. Abbasi F, McLaughlin T, Lamendola C, Lipinska I, Tofler G, Reaven GM.Comparison of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 concentration in insulin-resistant versus insulin-sensitive healthy women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999;19:2818-21.
66. Margolis KL, Manson JF, Greenland P, et al. Leukocyte count as a predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:500-8.
67. Facchini F, Hollenbeck CB, Chen YN, Chen YD, Reaven GM. Demonstration of a relationship between white blood cell count, insulin resistance, and several risk factors for coronary heart disease in women. J Intern Med 1992;232:267-72.
68. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-72.
69. Pyörälä K. Relationship of glucose tolerance and plasma insulin to the incidence of coronary heart disease: results from two population studies in Finland. Diabetes Care 1979;1979;2:131-41.
70. Abbasi F, Brown BWB, Lamendola C, McLaughlin T, Reaven GM. Relationship between obesity, insulin resistance, and coronary heart disease. J Amer Coll Card 2002;40:937-43.
71. McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Cheal K, Chu J, Lamendola C, Reaven GM. Use of metabolic markers to identify overweight individuals who are insulin resistant. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:802-9.
72. Ninomiya JK, L'Italien G, Criqui MH, Whyte JL, Gamst A, Chen R. Association of the metabolic syndrome with history of myocardial infarction and stroke in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation 2004;109:42-6.
73. Ferrannini E, Natali A, Bell P, Cavallo-Perin, Lalic N, Mingrone G. Insulin resistance and hypersecretion in obesity. J Clin Invest 1997;100:1166-73.
74. Rosenthal M, Haskell WL, Solomon R, Widstrom A, Reaven GM. Demonstration of a relationship between level of physical training and insulin-stimulated glucose utilization in normal humans. Diabetes 1983;32:408-11.
75. Bogardus C, Lillioja S, Mott DM, Hollenbeck C, Reaven GM. Relationship between degree of obesity and in vivo insulin action in man. Am J Physiol 1985;248(3 Pt 11):E286-91.
76. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Giles WH. Trends in waist circumference among U.S. adults. Obes Res 2003;11:1223-31.
77. Farin HMF, Abbasi F, Reaven GM. Body mass index and waist circumference correlate to the same degree with insulin-mediated glucose uptake. Metabolism 2005;54:1323-8.
78. Yeni-Komshian H, Carantoni M, Abbasi F, Reaven GM. Relationship between several surrogate estimates of insulin resistance and quantification of insulin-mediated glucose disposal in 490 healthy, nondiabetic volunteers. Diabetes Care 2000;23:171-5.
79. Zavaron I, Bonini L, Gasparini P, et al. Hyperinsulinemia in a normal population as a predictor of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and coronary heart disease: the Barilla Factory revisited. Metabolism 1999;48:989-94.
80. Yip J, Facchini FS, Reaven GM. Resistance to insulin-mediated glucose disposal as a predictor of cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:2773-6.
81. Facchini FS, Hua N, Abbasi F, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance as a predictor of age- related diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:3574-8.
82. McLaughlin T, Allison G, Abbasi F, Lamendola C, Reaven G. Prevalence of insulin resistance and associated cardiovascular disease risk factors among normal weight, overweight, and obese individuals. Metabolism 2004;53:495-9.
83. Abate N, Garg A, Peshock RM, Stray-Gunderson J, Grundy S. Relationships of generalized and regional adiposity to insulin sensitivity in man. J Clin Invest 1995;96:88-98.
84. Cefalu WT, Wang ZQ, Werbgel S, et al. Contribution of visceral fat to the insulin resistance of aging. Metabolism 1995;44:954-9.
85. Macor C, Ruggeri A, Mazzonetto P, Federspil G, Cobelli C, Veiiot R. Visceral adipose tissue impairs insulin secretion and sensitivity, but not energy expenditure in obesity. Metabolism 1997;46:123-9.
86. Goodpaster BH, Thaete JA, Simoneau JA, Kelley DE. Subcutaneous abdominal fat and thigh muscle composition predict insulin sensitivity independently of visceral fat. Diabetes 1997;46:1579-85.
87. Banerji MA, Faridi N, Atluri R, Chaiken RL, Lebovitz HE. Body composition, visceral fat, leptin and insulin resistance in Asian Indian Men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:137-44.
88. Kelley DE, Thaete FL, Troost F, Huwe T, Goodpaster BH. Subdivisions of subcutaneous abdominal tissue and insulin resistance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;278:E941-8.
89. Sites CK, Calles-Escandon J, Brochu M, Butterfield M, Ashikaga T, Poehlman ET. Relation of regional fat distribution to insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 2000;73:61-5.
90. Brochu M, Starling RD, Tchernof A, Mathews DE, Garcia-Rubi E, Poehlman ET. Visceral adipose tissue is an independent correlate of glucose disposal in older postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;85:2378-84.
91. Goran MI, Bergman RN, Gower BA. Influence of total vs. visceral fat on insulin action and secretion in African American and white children. Obes Res 2001;9:423-31.
92. Rendell M, Hulthen UL, Tornquist C, Groop L, Mattiason I. Relationship between abdominal fat compartments and glucose and lipid metabolism in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:744-9.
93. Purnell JQ, Kahn SE, Schwartz RS, Brunzell JD. Relationship of insulin sensitivity and apoB levels to intra-abdominal fat in subjects with combined hyperlipidemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:567-72.
94. Raji A, Seeley EW, Arky RA, Simonson DC. Body fat distribution and insulin resistance in healthy Asian Indians and caucasians. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5366-71.
95. Ross R, Aru J, Freman J, Hudson R, Janssen I. Abdominal obesity and insulin resistance in obese men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002;282:E657-63.
96. Ross R, Freeman J, Hudson R, Janssen I. Abdominal obesity, muscle composition and insulin resistant in premenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:5044-51.
97. Cnop M, Landchild MJ, Vidal J, et al. The concurrent accumulation of intra-abdominal and subcutaneous fat explains the association between insulin resistance and plasma leptin concentrations. Diabetes 2002;51:1005-15.
98. Cruz ML, Bergman RN, Goran MI. Unique effect of visceral fat on insulin sensitivity in obese Hispanic children with a family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1631-6.
99. Gan SK, Krikeos AD, Poynten AM, et al. Insulin action, regional fat, and myocyte lipid; altered relationships with increased adiposity. Obes Res 2003;11:1295-305.
100. Tulloch-Reid MK, Hanson RL, Sebring NG, et al. Both subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissues correlate highly with insulin resistance in African Americans. Obes Res 2004;12:1352-9.
101. Rattarasarn C, Leelawattan R, Soonthornpun S, Setasuban W, Thamprasit A. Gender differences of regional abdominal fat distribution and their relationships with insulin sensitivity in healthy and glucose-intolerant Thais. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:6266-70.
102. Janssen I, Heymsfield SB, Allison DB, Kotler DP, Ross R. Body mass index and waist circumference independently contribute to the prediction of nonabdominal, abdominal, subcutaneous, and visceral fat. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:683-8.
103. Kissebah AH, Vydelingum N, Murray R, et al. Relation of body fat distribution to metabolic complications of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;54:254-60.
104. Sparrow D, Borkan GA, Gerzof SG, Wisniewski C, Silbert CK. Relationship of fat distribution to glucose tolerance. Results of computed tomography in male participants of the Normative Aging Study. Diabetes 1986;35:411-5.
105. Bjorntorp P. Adipose distribution, plasma insulin, and cardiovascular disease. Diabete Metab 1987;13:381-5.
106. Despres JP, Nadeau A, Tremblay A, Ferland M, Lupien PJ. Role of deep abdominal fat in the association between regional adipose tissue distribution and glucose tolerance in obese women. Diabetes 1989;38:304-9.
107. Pouliot MC, Despres JP, Nadeau A, et al. Visceral obesity in men. Associations with glucose tolerance, plasma insulin, and lipoprotein levels. Diabetes 1992;41:826-34.
108. Kissebah AH, Krakower GR. Regional adiposity and morbidity. Physiol Rev 1994;74:761-811.
109. Gautier JF, Milner MR, Elam E, Chen K, Ravussin E, Pratley RE. Visceral adipose tissue is not increased in Pima Indians compared with equally obese Caucasians and is not related to insulin action or secretion. Diabetologia 1999;42:28-34.
110. Tulloch-Reid MK, Williams DE, Looker HC, Hanson RL, Knowler WC. Do measures of body fat distribution provide information on the risk of type 2 diabetes in addition to measures of general obesity? Diabetes Care 2003;26:2556-61.
111. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Mitchell BD, Hazuda HP, Patterson JK. Incidence of type II diabetes in Mexican Americans predicted by fasting insulin and glucose levels, obesity, and body fat distribution. Diabetes 1990;39:283-99.
112. Wang Y, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB. Comparison of abdominal adiposity and overall obesity in predicting risk of type 2 diabetes among men. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:555-63.
113. Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Deslypere JP, Charzewska J, Ellsinger BM, Cruz A. Body fat distribution in relation to serum lipids and blood pressure in 38-year-old European men: the European fat distribution study. Atherosclerosis 1991;86:251-60.
114. Folsom AR, Li Y, Pao X, et al. Body mass, fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors in a lean population of south China. J Clin Epidemiol 1994;47:173-81.
115. Sakurai Y, Kono S, Shinchi K, et al. Relation of waist-hip ratio to glucose tolerance, blood pressure, and serum lipids in middle-aged Japanese males. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1995;19:632-7.
116. Schmidt MI, Duncan BB, Watson RL, Sharrett AR, Brancati FL, Heiss G. A metabolic syndrome in whites and African-Americans. Diabetes Care 1996;19:414-8.
117. Wilson PWF, D'Agostino RB, Parise H, Sullivan L. Meigs JB. The metabolic syndrome as a precursor of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Circulation 2005;112:3066-72.
118. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27(suppl):S15- 35.
119. Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal. Joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2289-304.