Biodegradability of chlorinated solvents and related chlorinated aliphatic compounds

Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 185-254

  Field, J A ^a   Sierra Alvarez, R ^a  

^a University of Arizona   (United States)

Author keywords

Biodegradation; CFC; Chlorinated aliphatic compounds; Chloroacetic acids; Chlorobutadienes; Chloroethanes; Chloroethenes; Chlorofluorocarbons; Chloromethanes; Chloropropanes; Chloropropenes; Epichlorohydrin; Halorespiration; Microbial dechlorination; PCE; TCE

Indexed keywords

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 34247347786     PISSN: 15691705     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11157-004-4733-8     Document Type: Review

References (378)

1. Alvarez-Cohen L & McCarty PL (1991) Product toxicity and cometabolic competitive-inhibition modeling of chloroform and trichloroethylene transformation by methanotrophic resting cells. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 1031-1037
2. Alvarez-Cohen L & Speitel Jr GE (2001) Kinetics of aerobic cometabolism of chlorinated solvents. Biodegradation 12: 105-126
3. Abrahamsson K, Ekdahl A, Collen J & Pedersen M (1995) Marine algae - A source of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40: 1321-1326
4. Alvarez-Cohen L, McCarty PL, Boulygina E, Hanson RS, Brusseau GA & Tsien HC (1992) Characterization of a methane-utilizing bacterium from a bacterial consortium that rapidly degrades trichloroethylene and chloroform. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 1886-1893
5. Adamson DT, McDade JM & Hughes JB (2003) Inoculation of DNAPL source zone to initiate reductive dechlorination of PCE. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37: 2525-2533
6. Arciero D, Vanelli T, Logan M & Hooper AB (1989) Degradation of trichloroethylene by the ammonia oxidizing bacterium Nitrosomonas europaea. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 159: 640-643
7. Arp DJ, Yeager CM & Hyman MR (2001) Molecular and cellular fundamentals of aerobic cometabolism of trichloroethylene. Biodegradation 12: 81-103
8. Arvin E (1991) Biodegradation kinetics of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons with methane oxidizing bacteria in an aerobic fixed biofilm reactor. Water Res. 25: 873-882
9. 2-, and FeS with vitamin B-12 as organic amendment. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 128: 94-99
10. Aulenta F, Majone M, Beccari M, Perna L & Tandoi V (2003) Enrichment from activated sludges of aerobic mixed cultures capable to degrade vinyl chloride (VC) as the sole carbon source. Ann. Chim. 93: 337-346
11. Aziz CE, Georgiou G & Speitel GE (1999) Cometabolism of chlorinated solvents and binary chlorinated solvent mixtures using M. trichosporium OB3b PP358. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 65: 100-107
12. Bader R & Leisinger T (1994) Isolation and characterization of the Methylophilus sp. strain DM11 gene encoding dichloromethane dehalogenase/glutathione S-transferase. J. Bacteriol. 176: 3466-3473
13. Baeseman JL & Novak PJ (2001) Effects of various environmental conditions on the transformation of chlorinated solvents by Methanosarcina thermophila cell exudates. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 75: 634-641
14. Bagley DM & Gossett JM (1990) Tetrachloroethene transformation to trichloroethene and cis-1,2-dichloroethene by sulfate reducing enrichment cultures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 2511-2516
15. Bagley DM & Gossett JM (1995) Chloroform degradation in methanogenic methanol enrichment cultures and by Methanosarcina barkeri 227. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 3195-3201
16. Bartnicki EW & Castro CE (1994) Biodehalogenation - Rapid oxidative-metabolism of monohalomethanes and polyhalomethanes by Methylosinus trichosporium Ob-3b. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 13: 241-245
17. Bauer MR & Yavitt JB (1996) Processes and mechanisms controlling consumption of CFC-11 and CFC-12 by peat from a conifer-swamp and black spruce-tamarack bog in New York State. Chemosphere 32: 759-768
18. Becker JG & Freedman DL (1994) Use of cyanocobalamin to enhance anaerobic biodegradation of chloroform. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 1942-1949
19. Belay N & Daniels L (1987) Production of ethane, ethylene and acetylene from halogenated hydrocarbons by methanogenic bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53: 1604-1610
20. Berends AG, de Rooij CG, Shin-ya S & Thompson RS (1999) Biodegradation and ecotoxicity of HFCs and HCFCs. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 36: 146-151
21. Berg M, Muller SR, Muhlemann J, Wiedmer A & Schwarzenbach RP (2000) Concentrations and mass fluxes of chloroacetic acids and trifluoroacetic acid in rain and natural waters in Switzerland. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 2675-2683
22. Birner G, Werner M, Rosner E, Mehler C & Dekant W (1998) Biotransformation, excretion, and nephrotoxicity of the hexachlorobutadiene metabolite (E)-N-acetyl-S-(1,2,3,4,4-pentachlorobutadienyl)-L- cysteine sulfoxide. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 11: 750-757
23. Bjerg PL, Rugge K, Cortsen J, Nielsen PH & Christensen TH (1999) Degradation of aromatic and chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons in the anaerobic part of the Grindsted landfill leachate plume: In situ microcosm and laboratory batch experiments. Ground Water 37: 13-121
24. Booker RS & Pavlostathis SG (2000) Microbial reductive dechlorination of hexachloro-1,3-butadiene in a methanogenic enrichment culture. Water Res. 34: 4437-4445
25. Bosma TNP, Cottaar FHM, Posthumus MA, Teunis CJ, Vanveldhulzen A, Schraa G & Zehnder AJB (1994) Comparison of reductive dechlorination of hexachloro-1,3-butadiene in Rhine sediment and model systems with hydroxocobalamin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 1124-1128
26. Bosma T, Damborsky J, Stucki G & Janssen DB (2002) Biodegradation of 1,2,3-trichloropropane through directed evolution and heterologous expression of a haloalkane dehalogenase gene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 3582-3587
27. Bosma T, Kruizinga E, de Bruin EJ, Poelarends GJ & Janssen DB (1999) Utilization of trihalogenated propanes by Agrobacterium radiobacter AD1 through heterologous expression of the haloalkane dehalogenase from Rhodococcus sp. strain m15-3. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 4575-4581
28. Boucquey JB, Renard P, Amerlynck P, Modesto FP, Agathos SN, Naveau H & Nyns EJ (1995) High-rate continuous biodegradation of concentrated chlorinated aliphatics by a durable enrichment of methanogenic origin under carrier-dependent conditions. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 47: 298-307
29. Bourg ACM, Mouvet C & Lerner DN (1992) A review of the attenuation of trichloroethylene in soils and aquifers. Q. J. Eng. Geol. 25: 359-370
30. Bouwer EJ & McCarty PL (1983) Transformations of 1-carbon and 2-carbon halogenated aliphatic organic-compounds under methanogenic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 45: 1286-1294
31. Bradley PM (2000) Microbial degradation of chloroethenes in groundwater systems. Hydrogeol. J. 8: 104-111
32. Bradley PM (2003) History and ecology of chloroethene biodegradation: A review. Bioremediation J. 7: 81-109
33. Bradley PM & Chapelle FH (1996) Anaerobic mineralization of vinyl chloride in Fe(III)-reducing, aquifer sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30: 2084-2086
34. Bradley PM & Chapelle FH (1997) Kinetics of DCE and VC mineralization under methanogenic and Fe(III)-reducing conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31: 2692-2696
35. Bradley PM & Chapelle FH (2000) Acetogenic microbial degradation of vinyl chloride. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 2761-2763
36. Bradley PM, Chapelle FH & Lovley DR (1998a) Humic acids as electron acceptors for anaerobic microbial oxidation of vinyl chloride and dichloroethene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 3102-3105
37. 14]-dichloroethene under Mn(IV)- reducing conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1560-1562
38. Brausstromeyer SA, Hermann R, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1993) Dichloromethane as the sole carbon source for an acetogenic mixed culture and isolation of a fermentative, dichloromethane-degrading bacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 3790-3797
39. Bullister JL & Lee BS (1995) Chlorofluorocarbon-11 removal in anoxic marine waters. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22: 1893-1896
40. Cabirol N, Villemur R, Perrier J, Jacob F, Fouillet B & Chambon P (1998) Isolation of a methanogenic bacterium, Methanosarcina sp. strain FR, for its ability to degrade high concentrations of perchloroethylene. Can. J. Microbiol. 44: 1142-1147
41. Carter SR & Jewell WJ (1993) Biotransformation oftetrachloroethylene by anaerobic attached- films at low-temperatures. Water Res. 27: 607-615
42. Castro CE (1993) Biodehalogenation: The kinetics and rates of the microbial cleavage of carbon-halogen bonds. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12: 1609-1618
43. Castro CE & Belser NO (1966) Soil fumigant hydrolysis - hydrolysis of cis- and trans-1,3-dichloropropene in wet soil. J. Agri. Food Chem. 14: 69-70
44. Castro CE, Riebeth DM & Belser NO (1992a) Biodehalogenation: The metabolism of vinyl chloride by Methylosinus trichosporium Ob3B. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 11: 749-755
45. Castro CE, Wade RS, Riebeth DM, Bartnicki EW & Belser NO (1992b) Biodehalogenation - rapid metabolism of vinylchloride by a soil Pseudomonas sp. direct hydrolysis of a vinyl C-Cl bond. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 11: 757-764
46. Chang HL & Alvarez-Cohen L (1995) Transformation capacities of chlorinated organics by mixed cultures enriched on methane, propane, toluene, or phenol. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 45: 440-449
47. Chang HL & Alvarez-Cohen L (1996) Biodegradation of individual and multiple chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons by methane-oxidizing cultures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 3371-3377
48. Chang W & Criddle CS (1995) Biotransformation of HCFC-22, HCFC-142b, HCFC-123, and HFC-134a by methanotrophic mixed culture MM1. Biodegradation. 6: 1-9
49. Chauhan S, Barbieri P & Wood TK (1998) Oxidation of trichloroethylene, 1,1-dichloroethylene, and chloroform by toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 3023-3024
50. Chen G (2004) Reductive dehalogenation of tetrachloroethylene by microorganisms: Current knowledge and application strategies. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 63: 373-377
51. Chen C, Ballapragada BS, Puhakka JA, Strand SE & Ferguson JF (1999) Anaerobic transformation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by municipal digester sludge. Biodegradation 10: 297-305
52. Chen C, Puhakka JA & Ferguson JF (1996) Transformations of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane under methanogenic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30: 542-547
53. Christiansen N, Christensen SR, Arvin E & Ahring BK (1997) Transformation of tetrachloroethylene with anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
54. Chu KH & Jewell WJ (1994) Treatment of tetrachloroethylene with anaerobic attached film process. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 120: 58-71
55. Chung KY, Dickson DW & Ou LT (1999) Differential enhanced degradation of cis- and trans-1,3-D in soil with a history of repeated field applications of 1,3-D. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part B-Pestic. Contam. Agric. Wastes 34: 749-768
56. Cline PV & Viste DR (1985) Migration and degradation patterns of volatile organic compounds. Waste Manag. Res. 3: 351-360
57. Coleman NV & Spain JC (2003a) Epoxyalkane: Coenzyme M transferase in the ethene and vinyl chloride biodegradation pathways of Mycobacterium strain JS60. J. Bacteriol. 185: 5536-5545
58. Coleman NV & Spain JC (2003b) Distribution of the coenzyme m pathway of epoxide metabolism among ethene- and vinyl chloride-degrading Mycobacterium strains. Appl. Environ Microbiol. 69: 6041-6046
59. Coleman NV, Mattes TE, Gossett JM & Spain JC (2002a) Phylogenetic and kinetic diversity of aerobic vinyl chloride-assimilating bacteria from contaminated sites. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 6162-6171
60. Coleman NV, Mattes TE, Gossett JM & Spain JC (2002b) Biodegradation of cis-dichloroethene as the sole carbon source by a beta-Proteobacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 2726-2730
61. Cottrell L, Golding BT, Munter T & Watson WP (2001) In vitro metabolism of chloroprene: Species differences, epoxide stereochemistry and a de-chlorination pathway. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14: 1552-1562
62. Coulter C, Hamilton JTG, McRoberts WC, Kulakov L, Larkin MJ & Harper DB (1999) Halomethane: bisulfide/halide ion methyltransferase, an unusual corrinoid enzyme of environmental significance isolated from an aerobic methylotroph using chloromethane as the sole carbon source. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 4301-4312
63. Criddle CS, Dewitt JT & McCarty PL (1990a) Reductive dehalogenation of carbon tetrachloride by Escherichia coli K-12. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 3247-3254
64. Criddle CS, Dewitt JT, Grbic Galic D & McCarty PL (1990b) Transformation of carbon-tetrachloride by Pseudomonas sp. strain KC under denitrification conditions. Appl. Environ Microbiol. 56: 3240-3246
65. Cupples AM, Spormann AM & McCarty PL (2003) Growth of a Dehalococcoides-like microorganism on vinyl chloride and cis-dichloroethene as electron acceptors as determined by competitive PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 953-959
66. Davis JW & Carpenter CL (1990) Aerobic biodegradation of vinyl-chloride in groundwater samples. Appl. Environ Microbiol. 56: 3878-3880
67. Davis A, Fennemore GG, Peck C, Walker CR, McIlwraith J & Thomas S (2003) Degradation of carbon tetrachloride in a reducing groundwater environment: Implications for natural attenuation. Appl. Geochem. 18: 503-525
68. De Best JH, Hage A, Doddema HJ, Janssen DB & Harder W (1999) Complete transformation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane to chloroethane by a methanogenic mixed population. Appl Microbiol. Biotechnol. 51: 277-283
69. De Best JH, Jongema H, Weijling A, Doddema HJ, Janssen DB & Harder W (1997b) Transformation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in an anaerobic packed-bed reactor at various concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, acetate and sulfate. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 48: 417-423
70. De Best JH, Salminen E, Doddema HJ, Janssen DB & Harder W (1997a) Transformation of carbon tetrachloride under sulfate reducing conditions. Biodegradation. 8: 429-436
71. De Best JH, Ultee J, Hage A, Doddema HJ, Janssen DB & Harder W (2000) Dichloromethane utilization in a packed-bed reactor in the presence of various electron acceptors Water Res. 34: 566-574
72. De Wever H, Cole JR, Fettig MR, Hogan DA & Tiedje JM (2000) Reductive dehalogenation of trichloroacetic acid by Trichlorobacter thiogenes gen. nov., sp. nov. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2297-2301
73. De Wildeman S & Verstraete W (2003) The quest for microbial reductive dechlorination of C-2 to C-4 chloroalkanes is warranted. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 61: 94-102
74. De Wildeman S, Diekert G, van Langenhove H & Verstraete W (2003a) Stereoselective microbial dehalorespiration with vicinal dichlorinated alkanes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 5643-5647
75. De Wildeman S, Neumann A, Diekert G & Verstraete W (2003b) Growth-substrate dependent dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane by a homoacetogenic bacterium. Biodegradation 14: 241-247
76. De Wildeman S, Nollet H, van Langenhove H & Verstraete W (2001) Reductive biodegradation of 1,2-dichloroethane by methanogenic granular sludge in lab-scale UASB reactors. Adv. Environ. Res. 6: 17-27
77. De Wildeman S, Linthout G, van Langenhove H & Verstraete W (2004) Complete lab-scale detoxification of groundwater containing 1,2-dichloroethane. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 63: 609-612
78. Debruin WP, Kotterman MJJ, Posthumus MA, Schraa G & Zehnder AJB (1992) Complete biological reductive transformation of tetrachloroethene to ethane. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 1996-2000
79. Deflaun MF, Ensley BD & Steffan RJ (1992) Biological oxidation of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) by a methanotrophic bacterium. Bio-Technol. 10: 1576-1578
80. Deipser A (1998) Biodegradation of volatile CFCs, H-CFCs and VC in compost and marl. Waste Manage. Res. 16: 330-341
81. Deipser A & Stegmann R (1997) Biological degradation of VCCs and CFCs under simulated anaerobic landfill conditions in laboratory test digesters. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 4: 209-216
82. Denovan BA & Strand SE (1992) Biological degradation of chlorofluorocarbons in anaerobic environments. Chemosphere 24: 935-940
83. Devlin JF & Muller D (1999) Field and laboratory studies of carbon tetrachloride transformation in a sandy aquifer under sulfate reducing conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33: 1021-1027
84. Diez A, Alvarez MJ, Prieto MI, Bautista JM & Garrido Pertierra A (1995) Monochloroacetate dehalogenase activities of bacterial strains isolated from soil. Can. J. Microbiol. 41: 730-739
85. Diez A, Prieto MI, Alvarez MJ, Bautista JM, Garrido A & Puyet A (1996b) Improved catalytic performance of a 2-haloacid dehalogenase from Azotobacter sp. by ion-exchange immobilisation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 220: 828-833
86. Diez A, Prieto NI, Alvarez MJ, Bautista JM, Puyet A & Garrido-Pertierra A (1996a) Purification and properties of a high-affinity L-2-haloacid dehalogenase from Azotobacter sp. strain RC26. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 23: 279-282
87. Diks RMM & Ottengraf SPP (1991) Verification studies of a simplified model for the removal of dichloromethane from waste gases using a biological trickling filter. 1. Bioprocess Eng. 6: 93-99
88. Distefano TD (1999) The effect of tetrachloroethene on biological dechlorination of vinyl chloride: Potential implication for natural bioattenuation. Water Res. 33: 1688-1694
89. Distefano TD, Gossett JM & Zinder SH (1991) Reductive dechlorination of high-concentrations of tetrachloroethene to ethene by an anaerobic enrichment culture in the absence of methanogenesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2287-2292
90. Doronina NV, Sokolov AP & Trotsenko YA (1996) Isolation and initial characterization of aerobic chloromethane-utilizing bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 142: 179-183
91. Doronina NV, Trotsenko YA, Krausova VI & Suzina NE (1998) Paracoccus methylutens sp. nov. - a new aerobic facultatively methylotrophic bacterium utilizing dichloromethane. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 21: 230-236
92. Doronina NV, Trotsenko YA, Tourova TP, Kuznetsov BB & Leisinger T (2000) Methylopila helvetica sp. nov and Methylobacterium dichloromethanicum sp. nov. - Novel aerobic facultatively methylotrophic bacteria utilizing dichloromethane. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 23: 210-218
93. Doronina NV, Trotsenko YA, Tourova TP, Kuznetsov BB & Leisinger T (2001) Albibacter methylovorans gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel aerobic, facultatively autotrophic and methylotrophic bacterium that utilizes dichloromethane. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51: 1051-1058
94. Duhamel M, Wehr SD, Yu L, Rizvi H, Seepersad D, Dworatzek S, Cox EE & Edwards EA (2002) Comparison of anaerobic dechlorinating enrichment cultures maintained on tetrachloroethene, trichloroethene, cis-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride. Water Res. 36: 4193-4202
95. Dungan RS, Gan JY & Yates SR (2001) Effect of temperature, organic amendment rate and moisture content on the degradation of 1,3-dichloropropene in soil. Pest Manag. Sci. 57: 1107-1113
96. Egli C, Scholtz R, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1987) Anaerobic dechlorination of tetrachloromethane and 1,2-dichloroethane to degradable products by pure cultures of Desulfobacterium sp. and Methanobacterium sp. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 43: 257-261
97. Egli C, Stromeyer S, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1990) Transformation of tetrachloromethane and trichloromethane to carbon dioxide by anaerobic bacteria is a non-enzymic process. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 68: 207-212
98. Egli C, Tschan T, Scholtz R, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1988) Transformation of tetrachloromethane to dichloromethane and carbon-dioxide by Acetobacterium woodii. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 2819-2824
99. Egli C, Thuer M, Suter D, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1989) Monochloroacetic and dichloroacetic acids as carbon and energy-sources for a stable, methanogenic mixed culture. Arch. Microbiol. 152: 218-223
100. Ejlertsson J, Johansson E, Karlsson A, Meyerson U & Svensson BH (1996) Anaerobic degradation of xenobiotics by organisms from municipal solid waste under landfilling conditions. Ant. Leeuwen. Int. J. Gen. Mol. Microbiol. 69: 67-74
101. Ellis DA, Hanson ML, Sibley PK, Shahid T, Fineberg NA, Solomon KR, Muir DCG & Mabury SA (2001) The fate and persistence of trifluoroacetic and chloroacetic acids in pond waters. Chemosphere 42: 309-318
102. Ellis DE, Lutz EJ, Odom JM, Buchanan RJ, Bartlett CL, Lee MD, Harkness MR & Deweerd KA (2000) Bioaugmentation for accelerated in situ anaerobic bioremediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 2254-2260
103. Ely RL, Williamson KJ, Hyman MR & Arp DJ (1997) Cometabolism of chlorinated solvents by nitrifying bacteria: Kinetics, substrate interactions, toxicity effects, and bacterial response. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 54: 520-534
104. Ensign SA, Hyman MR & Arp DJ (1992) Cometabolic degradation of chlorinated alkenes by alkene monooxygenase in a propylene-grown Xanthobacter strain. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 3038-3046
105. Fathepure BZ & Boyd SA (1988a) Dependence of tetrachloroethylene dechlorination on methanogenic substrate consumption by Methanosarcina sp. strain DCM. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 2976-2980
106. Fathepure BZ & Boyd SA (1988b) Reductive dechlorination of perchloroethylene and the role of methanogens. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 49: 149-156
107. Fathepure BZ & Vogel TM (1991) Complete degradation of polychlorinated hydrocarbons by a 2- stage biofilm reactor. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 3418-3422
108. Fathepure BZ & Tiedje JM (1994) Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene by a chlorobenzoate-enriched biofilm reactor. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 746-752
109. Fathepure BZ, Nengu JP & Boyd SA (1987) Anaerobic bacteria that dechlorinate perchloroethene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53: 2671-2674
110. Fennell DE, Carroll AB, Gossett JM & Zinder SH (2001) Assessment of indigenous reductive dechlorinating potential at a TCE-contaminated site using microcosms, polymerase chain reaction analysis, and site data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 1830-1839
111. Ferguson JF & Pietari JMH (2000) Anaerobic transformations and bioremediation of chlorinated solvents. Environ. Pollut. 107: 209-215
112. Fetzner S (1998) Bacterial dehalogenation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 50: 633-657
113. Flanagan WP (1998) Biodegradation of dichloromethane in a granular activated carbon fluidized bed reactor. Water Environ. Res. 70: 60-66
114. Forczek ST, Matucha M, Uhlirova H, Albrechtova J, Fuksova K & Schroder HP (2001) Biodegradation of trichloroacetic acid in Norway spruce/soil system. Biol. Plant. 44: 317-320
115. Fox BG, Borneman JG, Wacket LP & Lipscomb JD (1990) Haloalkene oxidation by the soluble methane monooxygenase from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b: Mechanistic and environmental implications. Biochem. 29: 6419-6427
116. Freedman DL & Gossett JM (1991) Biodegradation of dichloromethane and its utilization as a growth substrate under methanogenic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2847-2857
117. Freedman DL & Herz SD (1996) Use of ethylene and ethane as primary substrates for aerobic cometabolism of vinyl chloride. Water Environ. Res. 68: 320-328
118. Freedman DL, Smith CR & Noguera DR (1997) Dichloromethane biodegradation under nitrate-reducing conditions. Water Environ. Res. 69: 115-122
119. Freedman DL, Danko AS & Verce MF (2001) Substrate interactions during aerobic biodegradation of methane, ethene, vinyl chloride and 1,2-dichloroethenes. Water Sci. Technol. 43: 333-340
120. Friday DD & Portier RJ (1991) Development of an immobilized microbe bioreactor for VOC applications. Environ. Progress. 10: 30-39
121. Frietos dos Santos LM & Livingstone AG (1995) Novel membrane bioreactor for detoxification of VOC wastewaters: Biodegradation of 1,2-dichloroethane. Water Res. 29: 179-194
122. Galli R (1987) Biodegradation of dichloromethane in wastewater using a fluidized-bed bioreactor. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 27: 206-213
123. Galli R & McCarty PL (1989) Biotransformation of 1,1,1- trichloroethane, trichloromethane, and tetrachloromethane by a Clostridium sp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 837-844
124. Gantzer CJ & Wackett LP (1991) Reductive dechlorination catalyzed by bacterial transition- metal coenzymes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25: 715-722
125. Garant H & Lynd LR (1996) Perchloroethylene utilization by methanogenic fed-batch cultures - Acclimation and degradation. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 57-8: 895-904
126. Gemmell CG & Jensen HL (1964) Some studies on trichloroacetate- decomposing soil bacteria. Archiv Fur Mikrobiol. 48: 386-392
127. Gerritse J, Renard V, Visser J & Gottschal JC (1995) Complete degradation of tetrachloroethene by combining anaerobic dechlorinating and aerobic methanotrophic enrichment cultures. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 43: 920-928
128. Gerritse J, Renard V, Gomes TMP, Lawson PA, Collins MD & Gottschal JC (1996) Desulfitobacterium sp. strain PCE1, an anaerobic bacterium that can grow by reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene or ortho-chlorinated phenols. Arch. Microbiol. 165: 132-140
129. Gerritse J, Kloetstra G, Borger A, Dalstra G, Alphenaar A & Gottschal JC (1997) Complete degradation of tetrachloroethene in coupled anoxic and oxic chemostats. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 48: 553-562
130. Ghisalba O (1983) Chemical wastes and their biodegradation. Experentia 39: 1247-1257
131. Gisi D, Willi L, Traber H, Leisinger T & Vuilleumier S (1998) Effects of bacterial host and dichloromethane dehalogenase on the competitiveness of methylotrophic bacteria growing with dichloromethane. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1194-1202
132. Glod G, Brodmann U, Angst W, Holliger C & Schwarzenbach RP (1997) Cobalamin-mediated reduction of cis- and trans-dichloroethene, 1,1-dichloroethene, and vinyl chloride in homogeneous aqueous solution: Reaction kinetics and mechanistic considerations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31: 3154-3160
133. Govind R, Flaherty PA & Dobbs RA (1991) Fate and effects of semivolatile organic pollutants during anaerobic sludge digestion. Water Research 5: 547-556
134. Gribble GW (2003) The diversity of naturally produced organohalogens. Chemosphere 52: 289-297
135. Guiot SR, Kuang X, Beaullieu C, Corriveau A & Hawari J (1995) Anaerobic and aerobic/anaerobic treatment for tetrachloroethylene (PCE). In: Hinchee RE, Leeson A & Semprini L (Eds) Third International In Situ and On Site Bioreclamation Symposium (pp 65-70). Batelle Press, Richland, Ca
136. Gupta M, Gupta A, Suidan MT & Sayles GD (1996) Biotransformation rates of chloroform under anaerobic conditions. 2. Sulfate reduction. Water Res. 30: 1387-1394
137. Habeck BD & Sublette KL (1995) Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) catalyzed by cyanocobalamin. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 51-2: 747-759
138. Hage JC & Hartmans S (1999) Monooxygenase-mediated 1,2-dichloroethane degradation by Pseudomonas sp. strain DCA1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 2466-2470
139. Hage JC, Kiestra FDG & Hartmans S (2001) Co-metabolic degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons by Pseudomonas sp. strain DCA1. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 57: 548-554
140. Hageman KJ, Istok JD, Field JA, Buscheck TE & Semprini L (2001) In situ anaerobic transformation of trichlorofluoroethene in trichloroethene- contaminated groundwater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 1729-1735
141. Hamamura N, Page C, Long T, Semprini L & Arp DJ (1997) Chloroform cometabolism by butane-grown CF8, Pseudomonas butanovora, and Mycobacterium vaccae JOB5 and methane-grown Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 3607-3613
142. Hanson ML, Sibley PK, Ellis DA, Mabury SA, Muir DCG & Solomon KR (2002) Evaluation of monochloroacetic acid (MCA) degradation and toxicity to Lemna gibba, Myriophyllum spicatum, and Myriophyllum sibiricum in aquatic microcosms. Aquat. Toxicol. 61: 251-273
143. Happell JD & Wallace DWR (1998) Removal of atmospheric CC14 under bulk aerobic conditions in groundwater and soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32: 1244-1252
144. Hardman DJ & Slater JH (1981) The dehalogenase complement of a soil pseudomonad grown in closed and open cultures on haloalkanoic acids. J. Gen. Microbiol. 127: 399-405
145. Harker AR & Kim Y (1990) Trichloroethylene degradation by two independent aromatic-degrading pathways in Alcaligenes eutrophus JMP134. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 1179-1181
146. Harper DB (2000) The global chloromethane cycle: Biosynthesis, biodegradation and metabolic role. Nat. Prod. Rep. 17: 337-348
147. Hartmans S & Tramper J (1991) Dichloromethane removal from waste gases with a trickle-bed bioreactor. Bioprocess Eng. 6: 83-92
148. Hartmans S & de Bont JAM (1992) Aerobic vinyl-chloride metabolism in Mycobacterium-aurum L1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 1220-1226
149. Hartmans S, de Bont JAM, Tramper J & Luyben K (1985) Bacterial degradation of vinyl-chloride. Biotechnol. Lett. 7: 383-388
150. Hartmans S, Kaptein A, Tramper J & de Bont JAM (1992) Characterization of a Mycobacterium sp. and a Xanthobacter sp. for the removal of vinyl-chloride and 1,2-dichloroethane from waste gases. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 37: 796-801
151. Hartmans S, Schmuckle A, Cook AM & Leisinger T (1986) Methyl chloride - Naturally-occurring toxicant and C-1 growth substrate. J. Gen. Microbiol. 132: 1139-1142
152. Hashimoto A, Iwasaki K, Nakasugi N, Nakajima M & Yagi O (2002) Degradation pathways of trichloro ethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane by Mycobacterium sp. TA27. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 66: 385-390
153. Hashsham SA, Scholze R & Freedman DL (1995) Cobalamin-enhanced anaerobic biotransformation of carbon tetrachloride. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29: 2856-2863
154. s) for reductive dehalogenation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33: 223-226
155. Hauck R & Hegemann W (2000) Anaerobic degradation of 1,2-dichloropropane in batch and continuous culture. Water Sci. Technol. 41: 7-13
156. He JZ, Ritalahti KM, Aiello MR & Loffler FE (2003a) Complete detoxification of vinyl chloride by an anaerobic enrichment culture and identification of the reductively dechlorinating population as a Dehalococcoides species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 996-1003
157. He JZ, Ritalahti KM, Yang KL, Koenigsberg SS & Loffler FE (2003b) Detoxification of vinyl chloride to ethene coupled to growth of an anaerobic bacterium. Nature 424: 62-65
158. Heinze U & Rehm HJ (1993) Biodegradation of dichloroacetic acid by entrapped and adsorptive immobilized Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ10. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 40: 158-164
159. Hendrickson ER, Payne JA, Young RM, Starr MG, Perry MP, Fahnestock S, Ellis DE & Ebersole RC (2002) Molecular analysis of Dehalococcoides 16S ribosomal DNA from chloroethene-contaminated sites throughout north America and Europe. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68: 485-495
160. Henry SM & Grbic Galic D (1990) Effect of mineral media on trichloroethylene oxidation by aquifer methanotrophs. Microb. Ecol. 20: 151-170
161. Henry SM & Grbic Galic D (1991) Influence of endogenous and exogenous electron donors and trichloroethylene oxidation toxicity on trichloroethylene oxidation by methanotrophic cultures from a groundwater aquifer. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 236-244
162. Henson JM, Yates MV & Cochran JW (1989) Metabolism of chlorinated methanes, ethanes and ethylenes by a mixed bacterial culture grown on methane. J. Ind. Microbiol. 4: 29-35
163. Herbst B & Wiesmann U (1996) Kinetics and reaction engineering aspects of the biodegradation of dichloromethane and dichloroethane. Water Res. 30: 1069-1076
164. Hirsch P & Alexander M (1960) Microbial decomposition of halogenated propionic and acetic acids. Can. J. Microbiol. 6: 241-249
165. Hoekstra EJ (2003) Review of concentrations and chemistry of trichloroacetate in the environment. Chemosphere 52: 355-369
166. Hoekstra EJ, de Leer EWB & Brinkman UAT (1998a) Natural formation of chloroform and brominated trihalomethanes in soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32: 3724-3729
167. Hoekstra EJ, Verhagen FJM, Field JA, de Leer EWB & Brinkman UAT (1998b) Natural production of chloroform by fungi. Phytochem. 49: 91-97
168. Hohener P, Werner D, Balsiger C & Pasteris G (2003) Worldwide occurrence and fate of chlorofluorocarbons in groundwater. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33: 1-29
169. Holliger C & Schraa G (1994) Physiological meaning and potential for application of reductive dechlorination by anaerobic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 15: 297-305
170. Holliger C, Kengen SWM, Schraa G, Stams AJM & Zehnder AJ (1992a) Methyl-coenzyme m reductase of Methanobacterium-thermoautotrophicum delta H catalyzes the reductive dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane to ethylene and chloroethane. J. Bacteriol. 174: 4435-4443
171. Holliger C, Regeard C & Diekert G (2003) Dehalogenation by anaerobic bacteria. In: Haggblom MH & Bossert ID (Ed) Dehalogenation: Microbial processes and environmental applications (pp 115-157). Kluwer Academic Press, Boston
172. Holliger C, Schraa G, Stams AJM & Zehnder AJB (1990) Reductive dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane and chloroethane by cell suspensions of methanogenic bacteria. Biodegradat. 1: 253-256
173. Holliger C, Schraa G, Stams AJM & Zehnder AJB (1993) A highly purified enrichment culture couples the reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene to growth. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 2991-2997
174. Holliger C, Wohlfarth G & Diekert G (1998) Reductive dechlorination in the energy metabolism of anaerobic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 22: 383-398
175. Holliger C, Schraa G, Stupperich E, Stams AJM & Zehnder AJB (1992b) Evidence for the Involvement of corrinoids and factor-F430 in the reductive dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane by Methanosarcina barkeri. J. Bacteriol. 174: 4427-4434
176. Hopkins GD & McCarty L. MP (1995) Field evaluation of in situ aerobic co-metabolism of trichloroethylene and three dichloroethylene isomers using phenol and toluene and as the primary substrates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29: 1626-1637
177. Hopkins GD, Semprini L & McCarty PL (1993) Microcosm and in-situ field studies of enhanced biotransformation of trichloroethylene by phenol-utilizing microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 2277-2285
178. Horber C, Christiansen N, Arvin E & Ahring BK (1998) Improved dechlorinating performance of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors by incorporation of Dehalospirillum multivorans into granular sludge. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1860-1863
179. Howard PH, Boelthing RS, Jarvis WF, Meylan WM & Michalenko EM (1991) Handbook of Environmental Degradation Rates. Lewis, Chelsea, MI
180. Hu JY, Wang ZS, Ng WJ & Ong SL (1999) Disinfection byproducts in water produced by ozonation and chlorination. Environ. Monitor. Assess. 59: 81-93
181. Hur HG, Sadowsky MJ & Wackett LP (1994) Metabolism of chlorofluorocarbons and polybrominated compounds by Pseudomonas putida G786 (Phg-2) via an engineered metabolic pathway. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 4148-4154
182. Hyman MR, Ensign SA, Rasche ME & Arp DJ (1992) Degradation of hydrochlorofluorocarbons HCFCs by Nitrosomonas europaea. Abstracts Gen. Meeting Am. Soc. Microbiol. 92: 264
183. Inguva S & Shreve GS (1999) Biodegradation kinetics of trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane by Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia PR1(31) and Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ10. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 43: 57-61
184. ITRC (1999) Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Principles and Practices (ISB-3), Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, Washington, DC
185. Jablonski PE & Ferry JG (1992) Reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene by the co-reduced Co dehydrogenase enzyme complex from Methanosarcina thermophila. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 96: 55-59
186. Jacobs MHJ, van den Wijngaard AJ, Pentenga M & Janssen DB (1991) Characterization of the epoxide hydrolase from an epichlorohydrin-degrading Pseudomonas sp. Eur. J. Biochem. 202: 1217-1222
187. Jahng DJ & Wood TK (1994) Trichloroethylene and chloroform degradation by a Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 2473-2482
188. James MO, Cornell R, Yan Z, Henderson GN & Stacpoole PW (1997) Glutathione-dependent conversion to glyoxylate, a major pathway of dichloroacetate biotransformation in hepatic cytosol from humans and rats, is reduced in dichloroacetate-treated rats. Drug Metab. Dispos. 25: 1223-1227
189. Janssen DB, Pries F & Vanderploeg JR (1994) Genetics and biochemistry of dehalogenating enzymes. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48: 163-191
190. Janssen DB, Scheper A, Dijkhuizen L & Witholt B (1985) Degradation of halogenated aliphatic compounds by Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ-10. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49: 673-677
191. Janssen DB, Grobben G, Hoekstra R, Oldenhuis R & Witholt B (1988) Degradation of trans-1,2-dichloroethene by mixed and pure cultures of methanotrophic bacteria. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 29: 392-399
192. Jensen HL (1957) Decomposition of chlorosubstituted aliphatic acids by soil bacteria. Can. J. Microbiol.
193. Jin G & Englande AJ (1998) Carbon tetrachloride biodegradation in a fixed-biofilm reactor and its kinetic study. Water Sci. Technol. 38: 155-162
194. Jitnuyanont P, Sayavedra-Soto LA & Semprini L (2001) Bioaugmentation of butane-utilizing microorganisms to promote cometabolism of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in groundwater microcosms. Biodegradation. 12: 11-22
195. Kao CM & Lei SE (2000) Using a peat biobarrier to remediate PCE/TCE contaminated aquifers. Water Res. 34: 835-845
196. Kasai N, Tsujimura K, Unoura K & Suzuki T (1990) Degradation of 2,3-dichloro-1-propanol by a Pseudomonas sp. Agric. Biol. Chem. 54: 3185-3190
197. Kastner M (1991) Reductive Dechlorination of trichloroethylenes and tetrachloroethylenes depends on transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2039-2046
198. Katsivela E, Bonse D, Kruger A, Strompl C, Livingston A & Wittich RM (1999) An extractive membrane biofilm reactor for degradation of 1,3- dichloropropene in industrial waste water. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 52: 853-862
199. Kearney PC, Kaufman DD, Vonendt DW & Guardia FS (1969) TCA metabolism by soil microorganisms. J. Agri. Food Chem. 17: 581-584
200. Kengen SWM, Breidenbach CG, Felske A, Stams AJM, Schraa G & de Vos WM (1999) Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene to cis-1,2-dichloroethene by a thermophilic anaerobic enrichment culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 2312-2316
201. Keppler F, Eiden R, Niedan V, Pracht J & Scholer HF (2000) Halocarbons produced by natural oxidation processes during degradation of organic matter. Nature 403: 298-301
202. Keppler F, Borchers R, Pracht J, Rheinberger S & Scholer HF (2002) Natural formation of vinyl chloride in the terrestrial environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36: 2479-2483
203. Keuning S, Janssen DB & Witholt B (1985) Purification of and characterization of hydrolytic haloalkane dehalogenase from Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ-10. J. Bacteriol. 163: 635-639
204. Khalil MAK & Rasmussen RA (1989) The potential of soils as a sink of chlorofluorocarbons and other man-made chlorocarbons. Geophys. Res. Lett. 16: 679-682
205. Khalil MAK & Rasmussen RA (2000) Soil-atmosphere exchange of radioactively and chemically active gases. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 7: 79-82
206. Khalil MAK, Rasmussen RA, Wang MX & Ren L (1990) Emissions of trace gases from Chinese rice fields and biogas generators methane dinitrogen oxide carbon monoxide carbon dioxide chlorocarbons and hydrocarbons. Chemosphere 20: 207-226
207. Khindaria A, Grover TA & Aust SD (1995) Reductive dchalogenation of aliphatic halocarbons by lignin peroxidase of Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29: 719-725
208. Kim S & Picardal FW (1999) Enhanced anaerobic biotransformation of carbon tetrachloride in the presence of reduced iron oxides. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18: 2142-2150
209. Kim Y, Arp DJ & Semprini L (2000) Chlorinated solvent cometabolism by butane-grown mixed culture. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 126: 934-942
210. Kim Y, Arp DJ & Semprini L (2002) Kinetic and inhibition studies for the aerobic cometabolism of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1-dichloroethyIene, and 1,1-dichloroethane by a butane-grown mixed culture. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 80: 498-508
211. Klecka GM, Gonsior SJ & Markham DA (1990) Biological transformations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane in subsurface soils and ground water. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 9: 1437-1452
212. Klecka GM, Carpenter CL & Gonsior SJ (1998) Biological transformations of 1,2-dichloroethane in subsurface soils and groundwater. J. Contam. Hydrol. 34: 139-154
213. Kleopfer RD, Easley DM, B. HJB, Delhi TG, Jackson DE & Wurrey CJ (1985) Anaerobic degradation of trichloroethylene in soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19: 277-280
214. Klier NJ, West RJ & Donberg PA (1999) Aerobic biodegradation of dichloroethylenes in surface and subsurface soils. Chemosphere 38: 1175-1188
215. Koh SC, Bowman JP & Sayler GS (1993) Soluble methane monooxygenase production and trichloroethylene degradation by a type I methanotroph, Methylomonas methanica 68-1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 960-967
216. Kohler-Straub D & Leisinger T (1995) Dichloromethane as the sole carbon source for Hyphomicrobium sp. strain DM2 under denitrifying conditions. Biodegrad. 6: 229-235
217. Komatsu T, Momonoi K, Matsuo T & Hanaki K (1994) Biotransformation of cis-1,2-dichloroethylene to ethylene and ethane under anaerobic conditions. Water Sci. Technol. 30: 75-84
218. Koob M & Dekant W (1992) Biotransformation of the hexachlorobutadiene metabolites 1-(glutathione-S-yl)-pentachlorobutadiene and 1-(cystein-S-yl)- pentachlorobutadiene in the isolated perfused-rat-liver. Xenobiotica 22: 125-138
219. Koons BW, Baeseman JL & Novak PJ (2001) Investigation of cell exudates active in carbon tetrachloride and chloroform degradation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 74: 12-17
220. Koziollek P, Bryniok D & Knackmuss HJ (1999) Ethene as an auxiliary substrate for the cooxidation of cis-1,2-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride. Arch. Microbiol. 172: 240-246
221. Kromann A, Ludvigsen L, Albrechtsen HJ, Christensen TH, Ejlertsson J & Svensson BH (1998) Degradability of chlorinated aliphatic compounds in methanogenic leachates sampled at eight landfills. Waste Manage. Res. 16: 54-62
222. Krone UE & Thauer RK (1992) Dehalogenation of trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) by Methanosarcina barkeri. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 90: 201-204
223. Krone UE, Laufer K, Thauer RK & Hogenkamp HPC (1989) Coenzyme-F430 as a possible catalyst for the reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated-Cl hydrocarbons in methanogenic bacteria. Biochem. 28: 10061-10065
224. 4 and freon-11, freon-12, and freon-13 catalyzed by corrinoids. Biochem. 30: 2713-2719
225. Kuntz RL, Brown LR, Zappi ME & French WT (2003) Isopropanol and acetone induces vinyl chloride degradation in Rhodococcus rhodochrous. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 30: 651-655
226. Landa AS, Sipkema EM, Weijma J, Beenackers A, Dolfing J & Janssen DB (1994) Cometabolic degradation of trichloroethylene by Pseudomonas cepacia G4 in a chemostat with toluene as the primary substrate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 3368-3374
227. Landmeyer JE, Bradley PM & Thomas JM (2000) Biodegradation of disinfection byproducts as a potential removal process during aquifer storage recovery. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 36: 861-867
228. 3) - An overview. Biogeochem. 60: 121-139
229. Lecloux AJ (2003) Scientific activities of Euro Chlor in monitoring and assessing naturally and man-made organohalogens. Chemosphere 52: 521-529
230. Lee BS, Bullister JL & Whitney FA (1999a) Chlorofluorocarbon CFC-11 and carbon tetrachloride removal in Saanich Inlet, an intermittently anoxic basin. Mar. Chem. 66: 171-185
231. Lee MD, Odom JM & Buchanan RJ (1998) New perspectives on microbial dehalogenation of chlorinated solvents: Insights from the field. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52: 423-452
232. Lee MD, Sehayek L, Sleep BE & Vandell TD (1999b) Investigation and remediation of a 1,2-dichloroethane spill part II: Documentation of natural attenuation. Ground Water Monit. Remediat. 19: 82-88
233. Leisinger T, Bader R, Hermann R, Schmidt-Appert M & Vuilleumier S (1994) Microbes, enzymes and genes involved in dichloromethane utilization. Biodegradation 5: 237-248
234. Lendvay JM, Loffler FE, Dollhopf M, Aiello MR, Daniels G, Fathepure BZ, Gebhard M, Heine R, Helton R, Shi J, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Major CL, Barcelona MJ, Petrovskis E, Hickey R, Tiedje JM & Adriaens P (2003) Bioreactive barriers: A comparison of bioaugmentation and biostimulation for chlorinated solvent remediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37: 1422-1431
235. Lesage S, Brown S & Hosler KR (1992) Degradation of chlorofluorocarbon-113 under anaerobic conditions. Chemosphere 24: 1225-1243
236. Lesage S, Brown S & Millar K (1996) Vitamin B-12-catalyzed dechlorination of perchloroethylene present as residual DNAPL. Ground Water Monit. Remediat. 16: 76-85
237. Lesage S, Jackson RE, Priddle MW & Riemann PG (1990) Occurrence and fate of organic-solvent residues in anoxic groundwater at the Gloucester landfill, Canada. Environ. Sci. Technol. 24: 559-566
238. Lesage S, McBride RA, Cureton PM & Brown S (1993) Fate of organic-solvents in landfill leachates under simulated field conditions and in anaerobic microcosms. Waste Manage. Res. 11: 215-226
239. Lewis TA & Crawford RL (1995) Transformation of carbon-tetrachloride via sulfur and oxygen substitution by Pseudomonas sp. strain KC. J. Bacteriol. 177: 2204-2208
240. Lewis TA, Paszczynski A, Gordon-Wylie SW, Jeedigunta S, Lee CH & Crawford RL (2001) Carbon tetrachloride dechlorination by the bacterial transition metal chelator pyridine-2,6-bis(thiocarboxylic acid). Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 552-559
241. Li S & Wacket LP (1992) Trichloroethylene oxidation by toluene dioxygenase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 185: 443-151
242. Li SY & Wackett LP (1993) Reductive dehalogenation by cytochrome P450(cam) - substrate- binding and catalysis. Biochem. 32: 9355-9361
243. Lignell R, Heinonen Tanski H & Uusi Rauva A (1984) Degradation of trichloro acetic acid in soil. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica 34: 3-8
244. Little M & Williams PA (1971) Bacterial Halidohydrolase - purification, some properties and its modification by specific amino acid reagents. Eur. J. Biochem. 21: 99-109
245. Loffler FE, Sun Q, Li JR & Tiedje JM (2000) 16S rRNA gene-based detection of tetrachloroethene-dechlorinating Desulfuromonas and Dehalococcoides species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 1369-1374
246. Loffler FE, Champine JE, Ritalahti KM, Sprague SJ & Tiedje JM (1997) Complete reductive dechlorination of 1,2-dichloropropane by anaerobic bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 2870-2875
247. Long JL, Stensel HD, Ferguson JF, Strand SE & Ongerth JE (1993) Anaerobic and aerobic treatment of chlorinated aliphatic- compounds. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 119: 300-320
248. Lontoh S, Zahn JA, DiSpirito AA & Semrau JD (2000) Identification of intermediates of in vivo trichloroethylene oxidation by the membrane-associated methane monooxygenase. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 186: 109-113
249. Lorah MM & Olsen LD (1999) Natural attenuation of chlorinated volatile organic compounds in a freshwater tidal wetland: Field evidence of anaerobic biodegradation. Water Resour. Res. 35: 3811-3827
250. Lovley DR & Woodward JC (1992) Consumption of freons CFC-11 and CFC-12 by anaerobic sediments and soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26: 925-929
251. Magli A, Rainey FA & Leisinger T (1995) Acetogenesis from dichloromethane by a 2-component mixed culture comprising a novel bacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 2943-2949
252. Magli A, Wendt M & Leisinger T (1996) Isolation and characterization of Dehalobacterium formicoaceticum gen nov sp. nov, a strictly anaerobic bacterium utilizing dichloromethane as source of carbon and energy. Arch. Microbiol. 166: 101-108
253. Magli A, Messmer M & Leisinger T (1998) Metabolism of dichloromethane by the strict anaerobe Dehalobacterium formicoaceticum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 646-650
254. Magnuson JK, Stern RV, Gossett JM, Zinder SH & Burris DR (1998) Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene to ethene by two- component enzyme pathway. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1270-1275
255. Malachowsky KJ, Phelps TJ, Teboli AB, Minnikin DE & White DC (1994) Aerobic mineralization of trichloroethylene, vinyl-chloride, and aromatic-compounds by Rhodococcus species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 542-548
256. Mars AE, Houwing J, Dolfing J & Janssen DB (1996) Degradation of toluene and trichloroethylene by Burkholderia cepacia G4 in growth-limited fed-batch culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 886-891
257. Matucha M, Forczek ST, Gryndler M, Uhlirova H, Fuksova K & Schroder P (2003) Trichloroacetic acid in Norway spruce/soil-system I. Biodegradation in soil. Chemosphere 50: 303-309
258. Maymo-Gatell X, Chine YT, Gossett JM & Zinder SH (1997) Isolation of a bacterium that reductively dechlorinates tetrachloroethene to ethene. Science 276: 1568-1571
259. Maymo-Gatell X, Anguish T & Zinder SH (1999) Reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes and 1,2-dichloroethane by "Dehalococcoides ethenogenes" 195. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 3108-3113
260. Maymo-Gatell X, Nijenhuis I & Zinder SH (2001) Reductive dechlorination of cis-1,2-dichloroethene and vinyl chloride by "Dehalococcoides ethenogenes". Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 516-521
261. McAnulla C, McDonald IR & Murrell JC (2001) Methyl chloride utilising bacteria are ubiquitous in the natural environment. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 201: 151-155
262. McCarty PL (1997) Microbiology - Breathing with chlorinated solvents. Science 276: 1521-1522
263. McCarty PL, Goltz M, Hopkins G, Dolan M, Allan JP, Kawakami BT & Carrothers TJ (1998) Full-scale evaluation of in situ cometabolic degradation of trichloroethylene in groundwater through toluene injection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32: 88-100
264. McCormick ML, Bouwer EJ & Adriaens P (2002) Carbon tetrachloride transformation in a model iron-reducing culture: Relative kinetics of biotic and abiotic reactions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36: 403-410
265. McCulloch A (2002) Trichloroacetic acid in the environment. Chemosphere 47: 667-686
266. McDonald IR, Doronina NV, Trotsenko YA, McAnulla C & Murrell JC (2001) Hyphomicrobium chloromethanicum sp. nov and Methylobacterium chloromethanicum sp. nov., chloromethane-utilizing bacteria isolated from a polluted environment. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 51: 119-122
267. McDonald IR, Warner KL, McAnulla C, Woodall CA, Oremland RS & Murrell JC (2002) A review of bacterial methyl halide degradation: biochemistry, genetics and molecular ecology. Environ. Microbiol. 4: 193-203
268. Messmer M, Reinhardt S, Wohlfarth G & Diekert G (1996) Studies on methyl chloride dehalogenase and O-demethylase in cell extracts of the homoacetogen strain MC based on a newly developed coupled enzyme assay. Arch. Microbiol. 165: 18-25
269. Meusel M & Rehm HJ (1993) Biodegradation of dichloroacetic acid by freely suspended and adsorptive immobilized Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ10 in soil. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 40: 165-171
270. Middeldorp PJM, Luijten MLGC, van de Pas BA, van Eekert MHA, Kengen SWM, Schraa G & Stams AJM (1999) Anaerobic microbial reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated ethenes. Bioremediat. J. 3: 151-169
271. Mikesell MD & Boyd SA (1990) Dechlorination of chloroform by Methanosarcina strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 1198-1201
272. Miller E, Wohlfarth G & Diekert G (1998) Purification and characterization of the tetrachloroethene reductive dehalogenase of strain PCE-S. Arch. Microbiol. 169: 497-502
273. Modesto P, Amerlynck P, Nyns EJ & Naveau HP (1992) Acclimatization of a methanogenic consortium to polychlorinated compounds in a fixed film stationary bed reactor. Water Sci. Technol. 25: 265-273
274. Moghaddam AP, Abbas R, Fisher JW, Stavrou S & Lipscomb JC (1996) Formation of dichloroacetic acid by rat and mouse gut microflora, an in vitro study. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 228: 639-645
275. Nelson YM & Jewell WJ (1993) Vinyl-chloride biodegradation with methanotrophic attached films. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 119: 890-907
276. Newman LM & Wackett LP (1991) Fate of 2,2,2-trichloroacetaldehyde (chloral hydrate) produced during trichloroethylene oxidation by methanotrophs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2399-2402
277. Newman LM & Wackett LP (1997) Trichloroethylene oxidation by purified toluene 2-monooxygenase: Products, kinetics, and turnover-dependent inactivation. J. Bacteriol. 179: 90-96
278. Neumann A, Wohlfarth G & Diekert G (1995) Properties of tetrachloroethene and trichloroethene dehalogenase of Dehalospirillum multivorans. Arch. Microbiol. 163: 276-281
279. Neumann A, Wohlfarth G & Diekert G (1996) Purification and characterization of tetrachloroethene reductive dehalogenase from Dehalospirillum multivorans. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 16515-16519
280. Nielsen PH, Holm PE & Christensen TH (1992) A field method for determination of groundwater and groundwater-sediment associated potentials for degradation of xenobiotic organic-compounds. Chemosphere 25: 449-462
281. Nielsen RB & Keasling JD (1999) Reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethene DNAPLs by a culture enriched from contaminated groundwater. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 62: 160-165
282. Okeke BC, Chang YC, Hatsu M, Suzuki T & Takamizawa K (2001) Purification, cloning, and sequencing of an enzyme mediating the reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) from Clostridium bifermentans DPH-1. Can. J. Microbiol. 47: 448-456
283. Oldenhuis R, Oedzes JY, Vanderwaarde JJ & Janssen DB (1991) Kinetics of chlorinated-hydrocarbon degradation by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b and toxicity of trichloroethylene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 7-14
284. Oldenhuis R, Vink RLJM, Janssen D & Witholt B (1989) Degradation of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b expressing soluble methane monooxygenase. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 2819-2826
285. Olivas Y, Dolfing J & Smith GB (2002) The influence of redox potential on the degradation of halogenated methanes. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21: 493-499
286. 3) in soils and sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 1818-1821
287. Ou LT, Thomas JE, Chung KY & Ogram AV (2001) Degradation of 1,3-dichloropropene by a soil bacterial consortium and Rhodococcus sp. AS2C isolated from the consortium. Biodegradation 12: 39-47
288. Ou LT, Chung KY, Thomas JE, Obreza TA & Dickson DW (1995) Degradation of 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) in soils with different histories of field applications of 1,3-D. J. Nematol. 27: 249-257
289. Parsons F, Wood PR & DeMarco J (1984) Transformation of tetrachloroethene and trichloroethene in microcosms and groundwater. J. Am. Water Works Assoc.: 56-59
290. Pavlostathis SG & Zhuang P (1991) Transformation of trichloroethylene by sulfate-reducing cultures enriched from a contaminated subsurface Soil. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 36: 416-420
291. Pavlostathis SG & Zhuang P (1993) Reductive dechlorination of chloroalkenes in microcosms developed with a field contaminated soil. Chemosphere 27: 585-595
292. Peters RJB, Erkelens C, Deleer EWB & Degalan L (1991) The analysis of halogenated acetic-acids in Dutch drinking-water. Wat. Res. 25: 473-477
293. Phelps TJ, Malachowsky K, Schram RM & White DC (1991) Aerobic mineralization of vinyl-chloride by a bacterium of the order actinomycetales. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 1252-1254
294. Picardal FW, Arnold RG, Couch H, Little AM & Smith ME (1993) Involvement of cytochromes in the anaerobic biotransformation of tetrachloromethane by Shewanella putrefaciens 200. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 3763-3770
295. Poelarends GJ, Wilkens M, Larkin MJ, van Elsas JD & Janssen DB (1998) Degradation of 1,3-dichloropropene by Pseudomonas cichorii 170. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 2931-2936
296. Rasche ME, Hyman MR & Arp DJ (1991) Factors limiting aliphatic chlorocarbon degradation by Nitrosomonas europaea cometabolic inactivation of ammonia monooxygenase and substrate specificity. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 2986-2994
297. Rasche ME, Hicks RE, Hyman MR & Arp DJ (1990) Oxidation of monohalogenated ethanes and n chlorinated alkanes by whole cells of Nitrosomonas europaea. J. Bacteriol. 172: 5368-5373
298. Reinhard M, Curtis GP & Kriegman MM (1990) Transformations of carbon-tetrachloride and hexachloroethane induced by natural sediments and minerals under anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Abstr. Pap. Am. Chem. Soc. 199: 96-ENVR
299. Rhee E & Speece RE (2000) Probing of maximal biodegradation rates of methylene chloride, carbon tetrachloride, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in methanogenic processes. Environ. Technol. 21: 147-156
300. Richards DJ & Shieh WK (1986) Biological fate of organic priority pollutants in the aquatic environment. Water Res. 20: 1077-1090
301. Ridder IS, Rozeboom HJ, Kingma J, Janssen DB & Dijkstra BW (1995) Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of 1-2-haloacid dehalogenase from Xanthobacter-autotrophicus GJ10. Protein Sci. 4: 2619-2620
302. Roberts TR & Stoydin G (1976) The degradation of (Z) and (E)-1,3-dichloropropenes and 1,2-dichloropropane in soil. J. Pest. Sci. 7: 325-335
303. Rugge K, Bjerg PL, Pedersen JK, Mosbaek H & Christensen TH (1999) An anaerobic field injection experiment in a landfill leachate plume, Grindsted, Denmark 1. Experimental setup, tracer movement, and fate of aromatic and chlorinated compounds. Water Resour. Res. 35: 1231-1246
304. Ryoo D, Shim H, Canada K, Barbieri P & Wood TK (2000) Aerobic degradation of tetrachloroethylene by toluene-o-xylene monooxygenase of Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1. Nat. Biotechnol. 18: 775-778
305. Saeki S, Mukaia S, Iwasaki K & Yagi O (1999) Production of trichloroacetic acid, trichloroethanol and dichloroacetic acid from trichloroethylene degradation by Methylocystis sp. strain M. Biocatal. Biotransform. 17: 347-357
306. Schaefer JK & Oremland RS (1999) Oxidation of methyl halides by the facultative methylotroph strain IMB-1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 5035-5041
307. Schafer A & Bouwer EJ (2000) Toluene induced cometabolism of cis-1,2-dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride under conditions expected down gradient of a permeable Fe(0) barrier. Water Res. 34: 3391-3399
308. Schlotelburg C, von Wintzingerode C, Hauck R, von Wintzingerode F, Hegemann W & Gobel UB (2002) Microbial structure of an anaerobic bioreactor population that continuously dechlorinates 1,2-dichloropropane. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 39: 229-237
309. Schneider B, Muller R, Frank R & Lingens F (1993) Site-directed mutagenesis of the 2-haloalkanoic acid dehalogenase-i gene from Pseudomonas sp. strain cbs3 and its effect on catalytic activity. Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler 374: 489-496
310. Schroder HF (1987) Chlorinated hydrocarbons in biological sewage purification - fate and difficulties in balancing. Water Sci. Technol. 19: 429-438
311. Schumacher W & Holliger C (1996) The proton electron ratio of the menaquinone-dependent electron transport from dihydrogen to tetrachloroethene in 'Dehalobacter restrictus'. J. Bacteriol. 178: 2328-2333
312. Schumacher W, Holliger C, Zehnder AJB & Hagen WR (1997) Redox chemistry of cobalamin and iron-sulfur cofactors in the tetrachloroethene reductase of Dehalobacter restrictus. FEBS Lett. 409: 421-425
313. Semprini L (1997) Strategies for the aerobic co-metabolism of chlorinated solvents. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8: 296-308
314. Semprini L, Hopkins GD, Roberts PV & McCarty PL (1990) In-situ biotransformation of carbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, Freon-11, and Freon-113 under anoxic conditions. In: Anonymous (Ed) AGU 1990 Fall Meeting. (pp 1324). American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, United States
315. Semprini L, Hopkins GD, McCarty PL & Roberts PV (1992) In situ transformation of carbon-tetrachloride and other halogenated compounds resulting from biostimulation under anoxic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26: 2454-2461
316. Shurtliff MM, Parkin GF, Weathers LJ & Gibson DT (1996) Biotransformation of trichloroethylene by a phenol-induced mixed culture. J. Environ. Eng.-ASCE 122: 581-589
317. Slater JH, Bull AT & Hardman DJ (1997) Microbial dehalogenation of halogenated alkanoic acids, alcohols and alkanes. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 38: 133-176
318. Small FJ, Tilley JK & Ensign SA (1995) Characterization of a new pathway for epichlorohydrin degradation by whole cells of Xanthobacter strain PY2. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 1507-1513
319. Smidt H, Akkermans ADL, van der Oost J & de Vos WM (2000) Halorespiring bacteria-molecular characterization and detection. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 27: 812-820
320. Snoeyenbos-West O, van Praagh CG & Lovley DR (2001) Trichlorobacter thiogenes should be renamed as a Geobacter species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 1020-1021
321. Sonier DN, Duran NL & Smith GB (1994) Dechlorination of trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) by sulfate-reducing bacteria from an aquifer contaminated with halogenated aliphatic-compounds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60: 4567-4572
322. Sponza DT (2002) Simultaneous granulation, biomass retainment and carbon tetrachloride (CT) removal in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Process Biochem. 37: 1091-1101
323. Stirling DI & Dalton H (1979) The fortuitous oxidation and cometabolism of various carbon compounds by whole-cell suspensions of Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath). FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 5: 315-318
324. Strand SE, Bjelland MD & Stensel HD (1990) Kinetics of chlorinated hydrocarbon degradation by suspended cultures of methane-oxidizing bacteria. Res. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 62: 124-129
325. Stucki G & Leisinger T (1983) Bacterial-degradation of 2-chloroethanol proceeds via 2-chloroacetic acid. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 16: 123-126
326. Stucki G & Thuer M (1994) Increased removal capacity for 1,2-dichloroethane by biological modification of the granular activated carbon process. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 42: 167-172
327. Stucki G & Thuer M (1995) Experiences of a large scale application of 1,2-dichloroethane degrading microorganisms for groundwater treatment. Env. Sci. Technol. 29: 2339-2345
328. Stucki G, Krebser U & Leisinger T (1983) Bacterial growth on 1,2-dichloroethane. Experientia Basel 39: 1271-1273
329. Stucki G, Thuer M & Bentz R (1992) Biological degradation of 1,2-dichloroethane under groundwater conditions. Water Res. 26: 273-278
330. Sun BL, Griffin BM, Ayala-del-Rio HL, Hashsham SA & Tiedje JM (2002) Microbial dehalorespiration with 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Science 298: 1023-1025
331. Suyama A, Yamashita M, Yoshino S & Furukawa K (2002) Molecular characterization of the PceA reductive dehalogenase of Desulfitobacterium sp. strain Y51. J. Bacteriol. 184: 3419-3425
332. Suyama A, Iwakiri R, Kai K, Tokunaga T, Sera N & Furukawa K. (2001) Isolation and characterization of Desulfitobacterium sp. strain Y51 capable of efficient dehalogenation of tetrachloroethene and polychloroethanes. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 65: 1474-1481
333. Swoboda-Colberg NG (1995) Chemical contamination of the environment: Sources, types and fate of synthetic organic chemicals. In: Young LY & Cerniglia C (Eds) Microbial Transformation and Degradation of Toxic Organic Chemicals (pp 27-74). John Wiley & Sons, New York
334. Tanaka K (1997) Abiotic degradation of tetrachloromethane in anaerobic culture media. J. Ferment. Bioeng. 83: 118-120
335. Tandol V, Distefano TD, Bowser PA, Gossett JM & Zinder SH (1994) Reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated ethenes and halogenated ethanes by a high-rate anaerobic enrichment culture. Environ. Sci. Technol. 28: 973-979
336. Terzenbach DP & Blaut M (1994) Transformation of tetrachloroethylene to trichloroethylene by homoacetogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 123: 213-218
337. Tesoriero AJ, Loffler FE & Liebscher H (2001) Fate and origin of 1,2-dichloropropane in an unconfined shallow aquifer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 455-461
338. Tiedje JM (1993) Bioremediation from an ecological perspective. In: In Situ Bioremediation: When Does it Work? (pp 110-120). National Academy Press, Washington, DC
339. Traunecker J, Preuss A & Diekert G (1991) Isolation and characterization of a methyl-chloride utilizing, strictly anaerobic bacterium. Arch. Microbiol. 156: 416-421
340. Tsien HC, Brusseau GA, Hanson RS & Wackett LP (1989) Biodegradation of trichloroethylene by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 3155-3161
341. van Agteren MH, Keuning S & Janssen DB (1998) Handbook of Biodegradation and Biological Treatment of Hazardous Organic Compounds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
342. van de Pas BA, Gerritse J, de Vos WM, Schraa G & Stams AJM (2001) Two distinct enzyme systems are responsible for tetrachloroethene and chlorophenol reductive dehalogenation in Desulfitobacterium strain PCE1. Arch. Microbiol. 176: 165-169
343. van den Wijngaard AJ, Janssen DB & Witholt B (1989) Degradation of epichlorohydrin and halohydrins by bacterial cultures isolated from freshwater sediment. J. Gen. Microbiol. 135: 2199-2208
344. van den Wijngaard AJ, van der Kamp KWHJ, van der Ploeg J, Pries F,
345. van Dijk H (1980) Dissipation rates in soil of 1,2-dichloropropane and 1,3- and 2,3-dichloropropenes. J. Pest. Sci. 11: 625-632
346. van Eekert MHA, Stams AJM, Field JA & Schraa G (1999) Gratuitous dechlorination of chloroethanes by methanogenic granular sludge. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 51: 46-52
347. van Eekert MHA, Schroder TJ, Stams AJM, Schraa G & Field JA (1998) Degradation and fate of carbon tetrachloride in unadapted methanogenic granular sludge. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 2350-2356
348. van Eekert MHA, Schroder TJ, van Rhee A, Stams AJM, Schraa G & Field JA (2001) Constitutive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes by a methanol degrading methanogenic consortium. Bioresour. Technol. 77: 163-170
349. van Hylckama Vlieg JET, de Koning W & Janssen DB (1996) Transformation kinetics of chlorinated ethenes by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b and detection of unstable epoxides by on-line gas chromatography. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 3304-3312
350. van Pee KH & Unversucht S (2003) Biological dehalogenation and halogenation reactions. Chemosphere 52: 299-312
351. Vancheeswaran S, Hyman MR & Semprini L (1999) Anaerobic biotransformation of trichlorofluoroethene in groundwater microcosms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33: 2040-2045
352. Vandenbergh PA & Kunka BS (1988) Metabolism of volatile chlorinated aliphatic-hydrocarbons by Pseudomonas fluorescens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 2578-2579
353. Vannelli T, Logan M, Arciero DM & Hopper AB (1990) Degradation of halogenated aliphatic compounds by the ammonia-oxidizing bacterium Nitrosomonas europaea. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 1169-1171
354. Veenstra JN, Sanders DA & Johan J (1999) Removal of air-phase 1,2-dichloroethane in a biofilter: A comparison of cometabolism using pre-loaded phenol and concurrent phenol addition. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A-Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 34: 1569-1589
355. Verce MF & Freedman DL (2000) Modeling the kinetics of vinyl chloride cometabolism by an ethane-grown Pseudomonas sp. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 71: 274-285
356. Verce MF, Ulrich RL & Freedman DL (2000) Characterization of an isolate that uses vinyl chloride as a growth substrate under aerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 3535-3542
357. Verce MF, Ulrich RL & Freedman DL (2001) Transition from cometabolic to growth-linked biodegradation of vinyl chloride by a Pseudomonas sp. isolated on ethene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 4242-4251
358. Verhagen C, Smit E, Janssen DB & VanElsas JD (1995) Bacterial dichloropropene degradation in soil; Screening of soils and involvement of plasmids carrying the DhlA gene. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27: 1547-1557
359. Vink JPM & Groen KP (1992) Mathematical descriptions of accelerated transformation of 1,3-dichloropropene in soil - A microbiological assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 123: 591-603
360. Vogel T & McCarty PL (1985) Biotransformation of tetrachloroethylene to trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, vinyl chloride and carbon dioxide under methanogenic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49: 1080-1083
361. Vogel T, Criddle CS & McCarty PL (1987) Transformation of halogenated aliphatic compounds. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21: 722-736
362. Vogel TM & McCarty PL (1987) Abiotic and biotic transformations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane under methanogenic conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21: 1208-1213
363. von Wintzingerode F, Schlotelburg C, Hauck R, Hegemann W & Gobel UB (2001) Development of primers for amplifying genes encoding CprA- and PceA-like reductive dehalogenases in anaerobic microbial consortia, dechlorinating trichlorobenzene and 1,2-dichloropropane. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 35: 189-196
364. Wacket LP & Gibson DT (1988) Degradation of trichlotoethylene by toluene dioxygenase in whole cells studies with Pseudomonas putida F1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 1703-1708
365. Wackett LP (1995) Bacterial co-metabolism of halogenated organic compounds. In: Young LY & Cerniglia C (Ed) Microbial Transformation and Degradation of Toxic Organic Chemicals (pp 217-241). John Wiley & Sons, New York
366. Wackett LP, Brusseau GA, Householder SR & Hanson RS (1989) Survey of microbial oxygenases trichloroethylene degradation by propane-oxidizing bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 2960-2964
367. Wackett LP, Sadowsky MJ, Newman LM, Hur HG & Li SY (1994) Metabolism of polyhalogenated compounds by a genetically-engineered bacterium. Nature 368: 627-629
368. Weighlman AL, Weightman AJ & Slater JH (1992) Microbial dehalogenation of trichloroacetic acid. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 8: 512-518
369. WHO (1984) Environmental Health Criteria 33: Epichlorohydrin, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
370. WHO (1990) Vinylidene Chloride. Environmental Health Criteria 100, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
371. Wilcox DW, Autenrieth RL & Bonner JS (1995) Propane-induced biodegradation of vapor-phase trichloroethylene. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 46: 333-342
372. Wild AP, Winkelbauer W & Leisinger T (1995) Anaerobic dechlorination of trichloroethene, tetrachloroethene and 1,2-dichloroethane by an acetogenic mixed culture in a fixed bed reactor. Biodegrad. 6: 309-318
373. Winterton N (2000) Chlorine: the only green element - towards a wider acceptance of its role in natural cycles. Green Chem. 2: 173-225
374. Witt ME, Klecka GM, Lutz EJ, Ei TA, Grosso NR & Chapelle FH (2002) Natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents at Area 6, Dover Air Force Base: groundwater biogeochemistry. J. Contam. Hydrol. 57: 61-80
375. Yagi O, Hashimoto A, Iwasaki K & Nakajima M (1999) Aerobic degradation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane by Mycobacterium spp. isolated from soil. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 4693-4696
376. Yu P & Welander T (1995) Growth of an aerobic bacterium with trichloroacetic-acid as the sole source of energy and carbon. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 42: 769-774
377. Yu ZT & Smith GB (1997) Chloroform dechlorination by a wastewater methanogenic consortium and cell extracts of Methanosarcina barkeri. Water Res. 31: 1879-1886
378. Zou SW, Stensel HD & Ferguson JF (2000) Carbon tetrachloride degradation: Effect of microbial growth substrate and vitamin B-12 content. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34: 1751-1757