Toward a framework for defective emotion processing in social phobia

Cognitive Neuropsychiatry

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 307-331

  Hermans, Erno J ^a   Van Honk, Jack ^a  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALERTNESS; AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; ANXIETY; ATTENTION DISTURBANCE; COGNITION; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; EMOTION; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS GONAD SYSTEM; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SELECTIVE ATTENTION; SOCIAL PHOBIA;

AFFECT; AMYGDALA; ATTENTION; COGNITION; EVOLUTION; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; NERVE NET; PHOBIC DISORDERS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; PREFRONTAL CORTEX;

EID: 33847167399     PISSN: 13546805     EISSN: 14640619     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13546800500213993     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Abbott, M. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2004). Post-event rumination and negative self-appraisal in social phobia before and after treatment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 136-144.
2. Adams, R. B., Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2003). Perceived gaze direction and the processing of facial displays of emotion. Psychological Science, 14, 644-647.
3. Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 165-178.
4. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (1995). Fear and the human amygdala. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 5879-5891.
5. Aikey, J. L., Nyby, J. G., Anmuth, D. M., & James, P. J. (2002). Testosterone rapidly reduces anxiety in male house mice (Mus musculus). Hormones and Behavior, 42, 448-460.
6. Amaral, D. G., Bauman, M. D., Capitanio, J. P., Lavenex, P., Mason, W. A., Mauldin-Jourdain, M. L., et al. (2003). The amygdala: Is it an essential component of the neural network for social cognition? Neuropsychologia, 41, 517-522.
7. Apperloo, M. J., Van Der Stege, J. G., Hoek, A., & Weijmar Schultz, W. C. (2003). In the mood for sex: The value of androgens. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 29, 87-102.
8. Bateup, H. S., Booth, A., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Granger, D. A. (2002). Testosterone, cortisol, and women's competition. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 181-192.
9. Battaglia, M., Ogliari, A., Zanoni, A., Citterio, A., Pozzoli, U., Giorda, R., et al. (2005). Influence of the serotonin transporter promoter gene and shyness on children's cerebral responses to facial expressions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 85-94.
10. Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 7-15.
11. Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Adolphs, R., Rockland, C., & Damasio, A. R. (1995). Double dissociation of conditioning and declarative knowledge relative to the amygdala and hippocampus in humans. Science, 269, 1115-1118.
12. Birbaumer, N., Grodd, W., Diedrich, O., Klose, U., Erb, M., Lotze, M., et al. (1998). fMRI reveals amygdala activation to human faces in social phobics. NeuroReport, 9, 1223-1226.
13. Blanchard, D. C., Sakai, R. R., McEwen, B., Weiss, S. M., & Blanchard, R. J. (1993). Subordination stress: behavioral, brain, and neuroendocrine correlates. Behavioural Brain Research, 58, 113-121.
14. Boissy, A., & Bouissou, M. F. (1994). Effects of androgen treatment on behavioral and physiological responses of heifers to fear-eliciting situations. Hormones and Behavior, 28, 66-83.
15. Bouissou, M. F., & Vandenheede, M. (1996). Long-term effects of androgen treatment on fear reactions in ewes. Hormones and Behavior, 30, 93-99.
16. Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Falla, S. J., & Hamilton, L. R. (1998). Attentional bias for threatening facial expressions in anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 737-753.
17. Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., Millar, N., Bonham Carter, C., Fergusson, E., Jenkins, J., et al. (1997). Attentional biases for emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 25-42.
18. Buss, K. A., Schumacher, J. R., Dolski, I., Kalin, N. H., Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2003). Right frontal brain activity, cortisol, and withdrawal behavior in 6-month-old infants. Behavioral Neuroscience, 117, 11-20.
19. Byrne, A., & Eysenck, M. W. (1995). Trait anxiety, anxious mood, and threat detection. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 549-562.
20. Carroll, B. J. (1984). Dexamethasone suppression test for depression. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology, 39, 179-188.
21. Carver, C. S. (2004). Negative affects deriving from the behavioral approach system. Emotion, 4, 3-22.
22. Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319-333.
23. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386-389.
24. Chen, Y. P., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Mansell, W. (2002). Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 677-687.
25. Clark, D. M. (1999). Anxiety disorders: why they persist and how to treat them. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(Suppl 1), S5-S27.
26. Condren, R. M., O'Neill, A., Ryan, M. C., Barrett, P., & Thakore, J. H. (2002). HPA axis response to a psychological stressor in generalised social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 693-703.
27. Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1999). Toward an evolutionary taxonomy of treatable conditions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 453-464.
28. Cuthbert, B. N. (2002). Social anxiety disorder: trends and translational research. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 4-10.
29. Davidson, R. J. (2002). Anxiety and affective style: role of prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 68-80.
30. Davidson, R. J., Marshall, J. R., Tomarken, A. J., & Henriques, J. B. (2000). While a phobic waits: Regional brain electrical and autonomic activity in social phobics during anticipation of public speaking. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 85-95.
31. Davis, M., & Whalen, P. J. (2001). The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 13-34.
32. Flinn, M., Baerwald, C., Decker, S., & England, B. (1998). Evolutionary functions of neuroendocrine response to social environment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 372-374.
33. Flory, J. D., Manuck, S. B., Ferrell, R. E., Dent, K. M., Peters, D. G., & Muldoon, M. F. (1999). Neuroticism is not associated with the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphism. Molecular Psychiatry, 4, 93-96.
34. Fridlund, A. J. (1994). Human facial expression: An evolutionary view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
35. Furlan, P. M., DeMartinis, N., Schweizer, E., Rickels, K., & Lucki, I. (2001). Abnormal salivary cortisol levels in social phobic patients in response to acute psychological but not physical stress. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 254-259.
36. Furmark, T., Tillfors, M., Garpenstrand, H., Marteinsdottir, I., Langstrom, B., Oreland, L., et al. (2004). Serotonin transporter polymorphism related to amygdala excitability and symptom severity in patients with social phobia. Neuroscience Letters, 362, 189-192.
37. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: An anger superiority effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 917-924.
38. Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., Goldman, D., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science, 297, 400-403.
39. Harmon-Jones, E. (2003). Clarifying the emotive functions of asymmetrical frontal cortical activity. Psychophysiology, 40, 838-848.
40. Harmon-Jones, E., & Allen, J. J. (1997). Behavioral activation sensitivity and resting frontal EEG asymmetry: Covariation of putative indicators related to risk for mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 159-163.
41. Henriques, J. B., & Davidson, R. J. (1991). Left frontal hypoactivation in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 535-545.
42. Hermans, E. J., Montagne, B., Schutters, S., Putman, P., Westenberg, H. G., & Van Honk, J. (2005). Reduced attentional processing of facial threat in Social Anxiety Disorder. Manuscript submitted for publication.
43. Hermans, E. J., Van Honk, J., Putman, P., Tuiten, A., De Haan, E. H., & Van Doornen, L. J. (1999). Anxiety, vagal tone, and selective attention to masked fearful faces. Psychophysiology, 36(Suppl. 1), S45.
44. Hirshfeld, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Biederman, J., Bolduc, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Snidman, N., et al. (1992). Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 103-111.
45. Horley, K., Williams, L. M., Gonsalvez, C., & Gordon, E. (2003). Social phobics do not see eye to eye: A visual scanpath study of emotional expression processing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 33-44.
46. Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1988). Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167-171.
47. Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). Fears and phobias: Reliability and heritability. Psychological Medicine, 29, 539-553.
48. Kennedy, J. L., Neves-Pereira, M., King, N., Lizak, M. V., Basile, V. S., Chartier, M. J., et al. (2001). Dopamine system genes not linked to social phobia. Psychiatric Genetics, 11, 213-217.
49. Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1183-1192.
50. Kringelbach, M. L., & Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: Evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology, 72, 341-372.
51. Lang, P. J., Davis, M., & Ohman, A. (2000). Fear and anxiety: Animal models and human cognitive psychophysiology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61, 137-159.
52. LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
53. Lesch, K. P., Bengel, D., Heils, A., Sabol, S. Z., Greenberg, B. D., Petri, S., et al. (1996). Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science, 274, 1527-1531.
54. MacConnie, S. E., Barkan, A., Lampman, R. M., Schork, M. A., & Beitins, I. Z. (1986). Decreased hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion in male marathon runners. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 411-417.
55. Marks, I. M. (1969). Fears and phobias. Oxford, UK: Academic Press.
56. Marks, I. M., & Nesse, R. M. (1994). Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 247-261.
57. Martel, F. L., Hayward, C., Lyons, D. M., Sanborn, K., Varady, S., & Schatzberg, A. F. (1999). Salivary cortisol levels in socially phobic adolescent girls. Depression and Anxiety, 10, 25-27.
58. Mathew, S. J., Coplan, J. D., & Gorman, J. M. (2001). Neurobiological mechanisms of social anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1558-1567.
59. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1985). Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 563-569.
60. Mattia, J. I., Heimberg, R. G., & Hope, D. A. (1993). The revised Stroop color-naming task in social phobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 305-313.
61. Mayr, E. (1974). Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies. American Scientist, 62, 650-659.
62. Mazur, A., & Booth, A. (1998). Testosterone and dominance in men. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 353-363.
63. McNally, R. J. (1995). Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 747-754.
64. Merikangas, K. R., Avenevoli, S., Acharyya, S., Zhang, H., & Angst, J. (2002). The spectrum of social phobia in the Zurich cohort study of young adults. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 81-91.
65. Michael, A., & O'Keane, V. (2000). Sexual dysfunction in depression. Human Psychopharmacology, 15, 337-345.
66. Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1403-1414.
67. Mogg, K., Philippot, P., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 160-165.
68. Morris, J. S., Ohman, A., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). A subcortical pathway to the right amygdala mediating "unseen" fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 96, 1680-1685.
69. Nesse, R. M. (2000). Is depression an adaptation? Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 14-20.
70. Newell, R., & Marks, I. (2000). Phobic nature of social difficulty in facially disfigured people. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 177-181.
71. Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2002). Rethinking feelings: an FMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 1215-1229.
72. Öhman, A. (1986). Face the beast and fear the face: animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analyses of emotion. Psychophysiology, 23, 123-145.
73. Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Lundqvist, D. (2000). Unconscious emotion: Evolutionary perspectives, psychophysiological data, and neuropsychological mechanisms. In R. D. Lane & L. Nadel (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of emotion (pp. 296-327). New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Öhman, A., Lundqvist, D., & Esteves, F. (2001). The face in the crowd revisited: A threat advantage with schematic stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 381-396.
75. Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483-522.
76. Pope, H. G., Jr., Cohane, G. H., Kanayama, G., Siegel, A. J., & Hudson, J. I. (2003). Testosterone gel supplementation for men with refractory depression: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 105-111.
77. Potts, N. L., Davidson, J. R., Krishnan, K. R., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Ritchie, J. C. (1991). Levels of urinary free cortisol in social phobia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52(Suppl.), 41-42.
78. Purcell, D. G., Stewart, A. L., & Skov, R. B. (1996). It takes a confounded face to pop out of a crowd. Perception, 25, 1091-1108.
79. Putman, P., Hermans, E. J., & Van Honk, J. (2004). Emotional Stroop performance for masked angry faces: It's BAS, not BIS. Emotion, 4, 305-311.
80. Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 119-127; discussion 128-119.
81. Rapee, R. M., & Spence, S. H. (2004). The etiology of social phobia: Empirical evidence and an initial model. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 737-767.
82. Roney, J. R., Mahler, S. V., & Maestripieri, D. (2003). Behavioral and hormonal responses of men to brief interactions with women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 365-375.
83. Rosen, J. B., & Schulkin, J. (1998). From normal fear to pathological anxiety. Psychological Review, 105, 325-350.
84. Rosenthal, N. E., Mazzanti, C. M., Barnett, R. L., Hardin, T. A., Turner, E. H., Lam, G. K., et al. (1998). Role of serotonin transporter promoter repeat length polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) in seasonality and seasonal affective disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 175-177.
85. Sanders, M. J., Wiltgen, B. J., & Fanselow, M. S. (2003). The place of the hippocampus in fear conditioning. European Journal of Pharmacology, 463, 217-223.
86. Sapolsky, R. M. (1990). Adrenocortical function, social rank, and personality among wild baboons. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 862-878.
87. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Sternberg, E. M., Gold, P. W., Smith, C. C., et al. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 30, 127-140.
88. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Schulkin, J., & Gold, P. W. (1999). Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 119-135.
89. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Sternberg, E. M., Gold, P. W., Smith, C. C., & Schulkin, J. (1999b). Adrenocortical reactivity and social competence in seven year-olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 977-985.
90. Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1999). Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1008-1015.
91. Schwartz, C. E., Wright, C. I., Shin, L. M., Kagan, J., & Rauch, S. L. (2003). Inhibited and uninhibited infants "grown up": Adult amygdalar response to novelty. Science, 300, 1952-1953.
92. Seidman, S. N., & Rabkin, J. G. (1998). Testosterone replacement therapy for hypogonadal men with SSRI-refractory depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 48, 157-161.
93. Sinha-Hikim, I., Arver, S., Beall, G., Shen, R., Guerrero, M., Sattler, F., et al. (1998). The use of a sensitive equilibrium dialysis method for the measurement of free testosterone levels in healthy, cycling women and in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83, 1312-1318.
94. Stein, M. B., Chartier, M. J., Kozak, M. V., King, N., & Kennedy, J. L. (1998). Genetic linkage to the serotonin transporter protein and 5HT2A receptor genes excluded in generalized social phobia. Psychiatry Research, 81, 283-291.
95. Stein, M. B., Goldin, P. R., Sareen, J., Zorrilla, L. T., & Brown, G. G. (2002). Increased amygdala activation to angry and contemptuous faces in generalized social phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1027-1034.
96. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.
97. Takahashi, L. K., & Kalin, N. H. (1999). Neural mechanisms and the development of individual differences in behavioral inhibition. In L. A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 97-118). London: Oxford University Press.
98. Tillfors, M., Furmark, T., Marteinsdottir, I., Fischer, H., Pissiota, A., Langstrom, B., et al. (2001). Cerebral blood flow in subjects with social phobia during stressful speaking tasks: a PET study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1220-1226.
99. Tillfors, M., Furmark, T., Marteinsdottir, I., & Fredrikson, M. (2002). Cerebral blood flow during anticipation of public speaking in social phobia: a PET study. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1113-1119.
100. Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 19-136). New York: Oxford University Press.
101. Tuiten, A., Van Honk, J., Koppeschaar, H., Bernaards, C., Thijssen, J., & Verbaten, R. (2000). Time course of effects of testosterone administration on sexual arousal in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 149-153.
102. Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., & Townsley, R. M. (1990). Social phobia: Relationship to shyness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 497-505.
103. Uhde, T. W., Tancer, M. E., Gelernter, C. S., & Vittone, B. J. (1994). Normal urinary free cortisol and postdexamethasone cortisol in social phobia: comparison to normal volunteers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 30, 155-161.
104. Van Honk, J., Hermans, E. J., d'Alfonso, A. A., Schutter, D. J., van Doornen, L., & de Haan, E. H. (2002a). A left-prefrontal lateralized, sympathetic mechanism directs attention towards social threat in humans: Evidence from repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neuroscience Letters, 319, 99-102.
105. Van Honk, J., Schutter, D. J., d'Alfonso, A. A., Kessels, R. P., & de Haan, E. H. (2002b). 1 hz rTMS over the right prefrontal cortex reduces vigilant attention to unmasked but not to masked fearful faces. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 312-317.
106. Van Honk, J., Schutter, D. J. L. G., Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Tuiten, A., & Koppeschaar, H. (2004). Testosterone shifts the balance between sensitivity for punishment and reward in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 937-943.
107. Van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., de Haan, E., van den Hout, M., & Stam, H. (2001a). Attentional biases for angry faces: Relationships to trait anger and anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 279-297.
108. Van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., Hermans, E., Putman, P., Koppeschaar, H., Thijssen, J., et al. (2001b). A single administration of testosterone induces cardiac accelerative responses to angry faces in healthy young women. Behavioral Neuroscience, 115, 238-242.
109. Van Honk, J., Tuiten, A., van den Hout, M., Koppeschaar, H., Thijssen, J., de Haan, E., et al. (1998). Baseline salivary cortisol levels and preconscious selective attention for threat. A pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 741-747.
110. Veit, R., Flor, H., Erb, M., Hermann, C., Lotze, M., Grodd, W., et al. (2002). Brain circuits involved in emotional learning in antisocial behavior and social phobia in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 328, 233-236.
111. Viau, V. (2002). Functional cross-talk between the hypothalamic- pituitary-gonadal and -adrenal axes. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 14, 506-513.
112. Viau, V., & Meaney, M. J. (1996). The inhibitory effect of testosterone on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress is mediated by the medial preoptic area. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 1866-1876.
113. Vuilleumier, P. (2002). Facial expression and selective attention. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 15, 291-300.
114. Wagner, J. D., Flinn, M. V., & England, B. G. (2002). Hormonal response to competition among male coalitions. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 437-442.
115. Whalen, P. J. (1998). Fear, vigilance, and ambiguity: Initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 177-188.
116. Williams, J. M., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3-24.