Rational approaches to the neurobiologic study of youth at risk for bipolar disorder and suicide

Bipolar Disorders

Volumn 8, Issue 5 II, 2006, Pages 526-542

  Sublette, M Elizabeth ^a,b   Oquendo, Maria A ^a,b   Mann, J John ^a,b  

^a NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b Howard Hughes Medical Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescents; Bipolar disorder; MRI; MRS; Neurobiology; Neuroimaging; Neurophysiology; Pediatric; PET

Indexed keywords

5 HYDROXYINDOLEACETIC ACID; CHOLINE; CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; GLYCOGEN SYNTHASE KINASE 3; HYDROCORTISONE; INTERLEUKIN 2 RECEPTOR; LITHIUM SALT; MIFEPRISTONE; N ACETYLASPARTIC ACID; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; OMEGA 6 FATTY ACID; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN; VALPROIC ACID;

AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; BASAL GANGLION; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BRAIN SIZE; CEREBELLUM; CINGULATE GYRUS; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASE; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG RESPONSE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; GRAY MATTER; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS; HYPOTHALAMUS; IN VIVO STUDY; INFLAMMATION; MAJOR DEPRESSION; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SUICIDE; THALAMUS; WHITE MATTER;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BRAIN; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HOMOCYSTEINE; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; RISK FACTORS; SUICIDE;

EID: 33749985747     PISSN: 13985647     EISSN: 13995618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00372.x     Document Type: Review

References (221)

1. Bertelsen A, Harvald B, Hauge M. A Danish twin study of manic-depressive disorders. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 130: 330-351.
2. Post RM, Denicoff KD, Leverich GS et al. Morbidity in 258 bipolar outpatients followed for 1year with daily prospective ratings on the NIMH life chart method. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64: 680-690 ; quiz: 738-739.
3. Chen YW, Dilsaver SC. Lifetime rates of suicide attempts among subjects with bipolar and unipolar disorders relative to subjects with other Axis I disorders. Biol Psychiatry 1996; 39: 896-899.
4. Goodwin FK, Jamison K. Manic-Depressive Illness. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990: 228-230.
5. Goldstein TR, Birmaher B, Axelson D et al. History of suicide attempts in pediatric bipolar disorder: Factors associated with increased risk. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7: 525-535.
6. Horrobin DF, Bennett CN. Depression and bipolar disorder: Relationships to impaired fatty acid and phospholipid metabolism and to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, immunological abnormalities, cancer, ageing and osteoporosis. Possible candidate genes. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1999; 60: 217-234.
7. Chang K, Steiner H, Ketter T. Studies of offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2003; 123: 26-35.
8. DelBello MP, Geller B. Review of studies of child and adolescent offspring of bipolar parents. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3: 325-334.
9. McDonald C, Zanelli J, Rabe-Hesketh S et al. Meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging brain morphometry studies in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56: 411-417.
10. Ahn KH, Lyoo IK, Lee HK et al. White matter hyperintensities in subjects with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 58: 516-521.
11. Botteron KN, Vannier MW, Geller B, Todd RD, Lee BC. Preliminary study of magnetic resonance imaging characteristics in 8- to 16-year-olds with mania. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995; 34: 742-749.
12. Pillai JJ, Friedman L, Stuve TA et al. Increased presence of white matter hyperintensities in adolescent patients with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2002; 114: 51-56.
13. Lyoo IK, Lee HK, Jung JH, Noam GG, Renshaw PF. White matter hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in children with psychiatric disorders. Compr Psychiatry 2002; 43: 361-368.
14. Dupont RM, Jernigan TL, Heindel W et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and mood disorders. Localization of white matter and other subcortical abnormalities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52: 747-755.
15. Chang K, Barnea-Goraly N, Karchemskiy A et al. Cortical magnetic resonance imaging findings in familial paediatric bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2005; 58: 197-203.
16. Breeze JL, Hesdorffer DC, Hong X, Frazier JA, Renshaw PF. Clinical significance of brain white matter hyperintensities in young adults with psychiatric illness. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2003; 11: 269-283.
17. Angst F, Stassen HH, Clayton PJ, Angst J. Mortality of patients with mood disorders: Follow-up over 34-38years. J Affect Disord 2002; 68: 167-181.
18. Severus W, Littman A, Stoll A. Omega-3 fatty acids, homocysteine, and the increased risk of cardiovascular mortality in major depressive disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2001; 9: 280-293.
19. Cohen H, Kaplan Z, Kotler M, Mittelman I, Osher Y, Bersudsky Y. Impaired heart rate variability in euthymic bipolar patients. Bipolar Disord 2003; 5: 138-143.
20. Joynt KE, Whellan DJ, O'Connor CM. Depression and cardiovascular disease: Mechanisms of interaction. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54: 248-261.
21. Pantoni L, Garcia JH. Pathogenesis of leukoaraiosis: A review. Stroke 1997; 28: 652-659.
22. Thomas AJ, Davis S, Ferrier IN, Kalaria RN, O'Brien JT. Elevation of cell adhesion molecule immunoreactivity in the anterior cingulate cortex in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 652-655.
23. Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr 2002; 21: 495-505.
24. Tsai SY, Chen KP, Yang YY et al. Activation of indices of cell-mediated immunity in bipolar mania. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 45: 989-994.
25. Tsai TSY, Yang YY, Kuo CJ, Chen CC, Leu SJ. Effects of symptomatic severity on elevation of plasma-soluble interleukin-2 receptor in bipolar mania. J Affect Disord 2001; 64: 185-193.
26. De Vriese SR, Christophe AB, Maes M. Lowered serum n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels predict the occurrence of postpartum depression: Further evidence that lowered n-PUFAs are related to major depression. Life Sci 2003; 73: 3181-3187.
27. Peet M, Murphy B, Shay J, Horrobin D. Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 43: 315-319.
28. Edwards R, Peet M, Shay J, Horrobin D. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. J Affect Disord 1998; 48: 149-155.
29. Maes M, Smith R, Christophe A, Cosyns P, Desnyder R, Meltzer H. Fatty acid composition in major depression: Decreased omega-3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20, 4 omega-6/C20:5 omega-3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. J Affect Disord 1996; 38: 35-46.
30. Mamalakis G, Tornaritis M, Kafatos A. Depression and adipose essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2002; 67: 311-318.
31. Ranjekar PK, Hinge A, Hegde MV et al. Decreased antioxidant enzymes and membrane essential polyunsaturated fatty acids in schizophrenic and bipolar mood disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 2003; 121: 109-122.
32. Sobczak S, Honig A, Christophe A et al. Lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and increased omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first-degree relatives of bipolar patients. Psychol Med 2004; 34: 103-112.
33. Nemets B, Stahl Z, Belmaker R. Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 477-479.
34. Peet M, Horrobin D. A dose-ranging study of the effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate in patients with ongoing depression despite apparently adequate treatment with standard drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002; 59: 913-919.
35. Su K, Huang S, Chiu C, Shen W. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003; 13: 267-271.
36. Stoll A, Severus E, Freeman M et al. Omega- 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56: 407-412.
37. Holub DJ, Holub BJ. Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils and cardiovascular disease. Mol Cell Biochem 2004; 263: 217-225.
38. Huan M, Hamazaki K, Sun Y et al. Suicide attempt and n-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cells: A case-control study in China. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56: 490-496.
39. Sublette ME, Hibbeln JR, Galfalvy H, Oquendo MA, Mann JJ. Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid status as a predictor of future suicide risk. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 1100-1102.
40. Soares JC, Mann JJ. The anatomy of mood disorders -review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41: 86-106.
41. Taylor WD, Payne ME, Krishnan KR et al. Evidence of white matter tract disruption in MRI hyperintensities. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 179-183.
42. Strakowski SM, Wilson DR, Tohen M, Woods BT, Douglass AW, Stoll AL. Structural brain abnormalities in first-episode mania. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 33: 602-609.
43. Davis KA, Kwon A, Cardenas VA, Deicken RF. Decreased cortical grey and cerebral white matter in male patients with familial bipolar I disorder. J Affect Disord 2004; 82: 475-485.
44. Pearlson GD, Barta PE, Powers RE et al. Medial and superior temporal gyral volumes and cerebral asymmetry in schizophrenia versus bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41: 1-14.
45. Beasley CL, Cotter DR, Everall IP. Density and distribution of white matter neurons in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: No evidence for abnormalities of neuronal migration. Mol Psychiatry 2002 ; 7: 564-570.
46. Lopez-Larson MP, DelBello MP, Zimmerman ME, Schwiers ML, Strakowski SM. Regional prefrontal grey and white matter abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 52: 93-100.
47. Dolan RJ, Poynton AM, Bridges PK, Trimble MR. Altered magnetic resonance white-matter T1 values in patients with affective disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157: 107-110.
48. Adler CM, Holland SK, Schmithorst V et al. Abnormal frontal white matter tracts in bipolar disorder: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 197-203.
49. Brambilla P, Nicoletti MA, Sassi RB et al. Magnetic resonance imaging study of corpus callosum abnormalities in patients with bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54: 1294-1297.
50. Brambilla P, Nicoletti M, Sassi RB et al. Corpus callosum signal intensity in patients with bipolar and unipolar disorder. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75: 221-225.
51. Ahearn EP, Jamison KR, Steffens DC et al. MRI correlates of suicide attempt history in unipolar depression. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 266-270.
52. Ehrlich S, Noam GG, Lyoo IK, Kwon BJ, Clark MA, Renshaw PF. Subanalysis of the location of white matter hyperintensities and their association with suicidality in children and youth. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 1008: 265-268.
53. Ehrlich S, Noam GG, Lyoo IK, Kwon BJ, Clark MA, Renshaw PF. White matter hyperintensities and their associations with suicidality in psychiatrically hospitalized children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43: 770-776.
54. Harvey I, Persaud R, Ron MA, Baker G, Murray RM. Volumetric MRI measurements in bipolars compared with schizophrenics and healthy controls. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 689-699.
55. Zipursky RB, Seeman MV, Bury A, Langevin R, Wortzman G, Katz R. Deficits in grey matter volume are present in schizophrenia but not bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 1997; 26: 85-92.
56. Lim KO, Rosenbloom MJ, Faustman WO, Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Cortical grey matter deficit in patients with bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 1999; 40: 219-227.
57. Phillips ML, Drevets WC, Rauch SL, Lane R. Neurobiology of emotion perception. I. The neural basis of normal emotion perception. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54: 504-514.
58. Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Sax KW et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging of structural abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56: 254-260.
59. Altshuler LL, Bartzokis G, Grieder T et al. An MRI study of temporal lobe structures in men with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 147-162.
60. Brambilla P, Harenski K, Nicoletti M et al. MRI investigation of temporal lobe structures in bipolar patients. J Psychiatr Res 2003; 37: 287-295.
61. Frangou S. The Maudsley bipolar disorder project. Epilepsia 2005 ; 46 (Suppl. 4): 19-25.
62. Swayze VW, II, Andreasen NC, Alliger RJ, Yuh WT, Ehrhardt JC. Subcortical and temporal structures in affective disorder and schizophrenia: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 1992; 31: 221-240.
63. Noga JT, Vladar K, Torrey EF. A volumetric magnetic resonance imaging study of monozygotic twins discordant for bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2001; 106: 25-34.
64. Blumberg HP, Kaufman J, Martin A, Charney DS, Krystal JH, Peterson BS. Significance of adolescent neurodevelopment for the neural circuitry of bipolar disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1021: 376-383.
65. Frazier JA, Chiu S, Breeze JL et al. Structural brain magnetic resonance imaging of limbic and thalamic volumes in paediatric bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1256-1265.
66. Chen BK, Sassi R, Axelson D et al. Cross-sectional study of abnormal amygdala development in adolescents and young adults with bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56: 399-405.
67. DelBello MP, Zimmerman ME, Mills NP, Getz GE, Strakowski SM. Magnetic resonance imaging analysis of amygdala and other subcortical brain regions in adolescents with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 43-52.
68. Blumberg HP, Kaufman J, Martin A et al. Amygdala and hippocampal volumes in adolescents and adults with bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 1201-1208.
69. Chang K, Karchemskiy A, Barnea-Goraly N, Garrett A, Simeonova DI, Reiss A. Reduced amygdalar grey matter volume in familial paediatric bipolar disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44: 565-573.
70. Dickstein DP, Milham MP, Nugent AC et al. Frontotemporal alterations in paediatric bipolar disorder: Results of a voxel-based morphometry study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 734-741.
71. Strakowski SM, Adler CM, DelBello MP. Volumetric MRI studies of mood disorders: Do they distinguish unipolar and bipolar disorder? Bipolar Disord 2002; 4: 80-88.
72. Gray N, Zhou R, Du J, Moore G, Manji H. The use of mood-stabilizers as plasticity enhancers in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64 (Suppl. 5): 3-17.
73. Bowley MP, Drevets WC, Ongur D, Price JL. Low glial numbers in the amygdala in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 52: 404-412.
74. Drevets WC. Prefrontal cortical-amygdalar metabolism in major depression. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 877: 614-637.
75. Drevets WC. Neuroimaging abnormalities in the amygdala in mood disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 985: 420-444.
76. Drevets WC, Price JL, Bardgett ME, Reich T, Todd RD, Raichle ME. Glucose metabolism in the amygdala in depression: Relationship to diagnostic subtype and plasma cortisol levels. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 71: 431-447.
77. Ketter TA, Kimbrell TA, George MS et al. Effects of mood and subtype on cerebral glucose metabolism in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 49: 97-109.
78. Bauer M, London ED, Rasgon N et al. Supraphysiological doses of levothyroxine alter regional cerebral metabolism and improve mood in bipolar depression. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 456-469.
79. Lennox BR, Jacob R, Calder AJ, Lupson V, Bullmore ET. Behavioural and neurocognitive responses to sad facial affect are attenuated in patients with mania. Psychol Med 2004; 34: 795-802.
80. Yurgelun-Todd D, Gruber S, Kanayama G, Killgore W, Baird A, Young A. fMRI during affect discrimination in bipolar affective disorder. Bipolar Disord 2000; 2:237-248.
81. Loughland CM, Williams LM, Gordon E. Schizophrenia and affective disorder show different visual scanning behaviour for faces: A trait versus state-based distinction? Biol Psychiatry 2002; 52: 338-348.
82. Getz GE, Shear PK, Strakowski SM. Facial affect recognition deficits in bipolar disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003; 9: 623-632.
83. Lembke A, Ketter TA. Impaired recognition of facial emotion in mania. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 302-304.
84. MacQueen GM, Grof P, Alda M, Marriott M, Young LT, Duffy A. A pilot study of visual backward masking performance among affected versus unaffected offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 374-378.
85. McClure EB, Pope K, Hoberman AJ, Pine DS, Leibenluft E. Facial expression recognition in adolescents with mood and anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 1172-1174.
86. MacQueen GM, Young LT, Galway TM, Joffe RT. Backward masking task performance in stable, euthymic outpatients with bipolar disorder. Psychol Med 2001; 31: 1269-1277.
87. McClure RK. Backward masking in bipolar affective disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1999; 23: 195-206.
88. Morris JS, Ohman A, Dolan RJ. Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the human amygdala. Nature 1998; 393: 467-470.
89. Morris JS, Ohman A, Dolan RJ. A subcortical pathway to the right amygdala mediating 'unseen'fear. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999; 96: 1680-1685.
90. Goldberg TE. Some fairly obvious distinctions between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr Res 1999; 39: 127-132.
91. Campbell S, MacQueen G. The role of the hippocampus in the pathophysiology of major depression. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2004; 29: 417-426.
92. Sax KW, Strakowski SM, Zimmerman ME, DelBello MP, Keck PE, Jr, Hawkins JM. Frontosubcortical neuroanatomy and the Continuous Performance Test in mania. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 139-141.
93. Deckersbach T, Dougherty DD, Savage C et al. Impaired recruitment of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and hippocampus during encoding in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 59: 138-146.
94. Deicken RF, Pegues MP, Anzalone S, Feiwell R, Soher B. Lower concentration of hippocampal N-acetylaspartate in familial bipolar I disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 873-882.
95. Bertolino A, Frye M, Callicott JH et al. Neuronal pathology in the hippocampal area of patients with bipolar disorder: A study with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53: 906-913.
96. Sassi RB, Nicoletti M, Brambilla P et al. Decreased pituitary volume in patients with bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 271-280.
97. Chen HH, Nicoletti M, Sanches M et al. Normal pituitary volumes in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Depress Anxiety 2004; 20: 182-186.
98. Bielau H, Trubner K, Krell D et al. Volume deficits of subcortical nuclei in mood disorders: A postmortem study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 255: 401-412.
99. Manaye KF, Lei DL, Tizabi Y, Davila-Garcia MI, Mouton PR, Kelly PH. Selective neuron loss in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus in patients suffering from major depression and bipolar disorder. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2005; 64: 224-229.
100. Raadsheer FC, Hoogendijk WJ, Stam FC, Tilders FJ, Swaab DF. Increased numbers of corticotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 1994; 60: 436-444.
101. Bao AM, Hestiantoro A, Van Someren EJ, Swaab DF, Zhou JN. Colocalization of corticotropin-releasing hormone and oestrogen receptor-alpha in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in mood disorders. Brain 2005; 128: 1301-1313.
102. Daban C, Vieta E, Mackin P, Young AH. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and bipolar disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2005; 28: 469-480.
103. Cervantes P, Gelber S, Kin FN, Nair VN, Schwartz G. Circadian secretion of cortisol in bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2001; 26: 411-416.
104. Deshauer D, Duffy A, Alda M, Grof E, Albuquerque J, Grof P. The cortisol awakening response in bipolar illness: A pilot study. Can J Psychiatry 2003; 48: 462-466.
105. Rybakowski JK, Twardowska K. The dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test in depression in bipolar and unipolar affective illness. J Psychiatr Res 1999; 33: 363-370.
106. Watson S, Gallagher P, Ritchie JC, Ferrier IN, Young AH. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in patients with bipolar disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2004; 184: 496-502.
107. Schmider J, Lammers CH, Gotthardt U, Dettling M, Holsboer F, Heuser IJ. Combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test in acute and remitted manic patients, in acute depression, and in normal controls. I. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 38: 797-802.
108. Watson S, Thompson JM, Ritchie JC, Ferrier IN, Young AH. Neuropsychological impairment in bipolar disorder: The relationship with glucocorticoid receptor function. Bipolar Disord 2006; 8: 85-90.
109. Ellenbogen MA, Hodgins S, Walker CD. High levels of cortisol among adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: A pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004; 29: 99-106.
110. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Tamplin A, Altham PM. Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents. Br J Psychiatry 2000; 177: 499-504.
111. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Tamplin A, Altham PM. First-episode major depression in adolescents. Affective, cognitive and endocrine characteristics of risk status and predictors of onset. Br J Psychiatry 2000; 176: 142-149.
112. Lewy AJ, Nurnberger JI, Jr, Wehr TA et al. Supersensitivity to light: possible trait marker for manic-depressive illness. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 725-727.
113. Nurnberger JI, Jr, Berrettini W, Tamarkin L, Hamovit J, Norton J, Gershon E. Supersensitivity to melatonin suppression by light in young people at high risk for affective disorder. A preliminary report. Neuropsychopharmacology 1988; 1: 217-223.
114. Nathan PJ, Burrows GD, Norman TR. Melatonin sensitivity to dim white light in affective disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999; 21: 408-413.
115. Hallam KT, Olver JS, Norman TR. Effect of sodium valproate on nocturnal melatonin sensitivity to light in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30: 1400-1404.
116. Abe M, Herzog ED, Block GD. Lithium lengthens the circadian period of individual suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons. Neuroreport 2000; 11: 3261-3264.
117. Benedetti F, Serretti A, Pontiggia A et al. Longterm response to lithium salts in bipolar illness is influenced by the glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta-50 T/C SNP. Neurosci Lett 2005; 376: 51-55.
118. Zhou JN, Riemersma RF, Unmehopa UA et al. Alterations in arginine vasopressin neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 655-662.
119. Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ, Bissette G, Andorn AC, Stanley M. Reduced corticotropin releasing factor binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 577-579.
120. Arato M, Banki CM, Bissette G, Nemeroff CB. Elevated CSF CRF in suicide victims. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 25: 355-359.
121. Coryell W, Schlesser M. The dexamethasone suppression test and suicide prediction. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 748-753.
122. Herrero MT, Barcia C, Navarro JM. Functional anatomy of thalamus and basal ganglia. Childs Nerv Syst 2002; 18: 386-404.
123. Caetano SC, Sassi R, Brambilla P et al. MRI study of thalamic volumes in bipolar and unipolar patients and healthy individuals. Psychiatry Res 2001; 108: 161-168.
124. McIntosh AM, Job DE, Moorhead TW et al. Voxel-based morphometry of patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56: 544-552.
125. Dasari M, Friedman L, Jesberger J et al. A magnetic resonance imaging study of thalamic area in adolescent patients with either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder as compared to healthy controls. Psychiatry Res 1999; 91: 155-162.
126. Malhi GS, Lagopoulos J, Sachdev P, Mitchell PB, Ivanovski B, Parker GB. Cognitive generation of affect in hypomania: An fMRI study. Bipolar Disord 2004; 6: 271-285.
127. Aylward EH, Roberts-Twillie JV, Barta PE et al. Basal ganglia volumes and white matter hyperintensities in patients with bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 687-693.
128. Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Zimmerman ME et al. Ventricular and periventricular structural volumes in first- versus multiple-episode bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1841-1847.
129. Brambilla P, Harenski K, Nicoletti MA et al. Anatomical MRI study of basal ganglia in bipolar disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 2001; 106: 65-80.
130. Wilke M, Kowatch RA, DelBello MP, Mills NP, Holland SK. Voxel-based morphometry in adolescents with bipolar disorder: First results. Psychiatry Res 2004; 131: 57-69.
131. Sharma R, Venkatasubramanian P, Barany M, Davis J. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain in schizophrenic and affective patients. Schizophr Res 1992; 8: 43-49.
132. Kato T, Hamakawa H, Shioiri T et al. Choline-containing compounds detected by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the basal ganglia in bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1996; 21: 248-254.
133. Hamakawa H, Kato T, Murashita J, Kato N. Quantitative proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the basal ganglia in patients with affective disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 248: 53-58.
134. Stoll AL, Renshaw PF, Sachs GS et al. The human brain resonance of choline-containing compounds is similar in patients receiving lithium treatment and controls: An in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol Psychiatry 1992; 32: 944-949.
135. Ohara K, Isoda H, Suzuki Y et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the lenticular nuclei in bipolar I affective disorder. Psychiatry Res 1998; 84: 55-60.
136. Blumberg HP, Stern E, Martinez D et al. Increased anterior cingulate and caudate activity in bipolar mania. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 1045-1052.
137. Caligiuri MP, Brown GG, Meloy MJ et al. An fMRI study of affective state and medication on cortical and subcortical brain regions during motor performance in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2003; 123: 171-182.
138. Blumberg HP, Martin A, Kaufman J et al. Frontostriatal abnormalities in adolescents with bipolar disorder: Preliminary observations from functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 1345-1347.
139. Cutting JC. Chronic mania in childhood: Case report of a possible association with a radiological picture of cerebellar disease. Psychol Med 1976; 6: 635-642.
140. Hamilton NG, Frick RB, Takahashi T, Hopping MW. Psychiatric symptoms and cerebellar pathology. Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140: 1322-1326.
141. Yadalam KG, Jain AK, Simpson GM. Mania in two sisters with similar cerebellar disturbance. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 1067-1069.
142. Endo M. Pituitary function, affective disorder and cerebellar vermis atrophy. Biol Psychiatry 1986; 21: 705-707.
143. Lauterbach EC. Bipolar disorders, dystonia, and compulsion after dysfunction of the cerebellum, dentatorubrothalamic tract and substantia nigra. Biol Psychiatry 1996; 40: 726-730.
144. Nasrallah HA, Jacoby CG, McCalley-Whitters MI. Cerebellar atrophy in schizophrenia and mania. Lancet 1981; 1: 1102.
145. Lippmann S, Manshadi M, Baldwin H, Drasin G, Rice J, Alrajeh S. Cerebellar vermis dimensions on computerized tomographic scans of schizophrenic and bipolar patients. Am J Psychiatry 1982; 139: 667-668.
146. Weinberger DR, DeLisi LE, Perman GP, Targum S, Wyatt RJ. Computed tomography in schizophreniform disorder and other acute psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39: 778-783.
147. Nasrallah HA, McCalley-Whitters M, Jacoby CG. Cortical atrophy in schizophrenia and mania: A comparative CT study. J Clin Psychiatry 1982 ; 43: 439-441.
148. Yates WR, Jacoby CG, Andreasen NC. Cerebellar atrophy in schizophrenia and affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 465-467.
149. Loeber RT, Gruber SA, Cohen BM, Renshaw PF, Sherwood AR, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Cerebellar blood volume in bipolar patients correlates with medication. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 51: 370-376.
150. Brambilla P, Harenski K, Nicoletti M et al. MRI study of posterior fossa structures and brain ventricles in bipolar patients. J Psychiatr Res 2001; 35: 313-322.
151. Dewan MJ, Haldipur CV, Lane EE, Ispahani A, Boucher MF, Major LF. Bipolar affective disorder. I. Comprehensive quantitative computed tomography. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988; 77: 670-676.
152. DelBello MP, Strakowski SM, Zimmerman ME, Hawkins JM, Sax KW. MRI analysis of the cerebellum in bipolar disorder: A pilot study. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999; 21: 63-68.
153. Mills NP, DelBello MP, Adler CM, Strakowski SM. MRI analysis of cerebellar vermal abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1530-1532.
154. Cecil K, DelBello M, Sellars M, Strakowski S. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the frontal lobe and cerebellar vermis in children with a mood disorder and a familial risk for bipolar disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2003; 13: 545-555.
155. Ridderinkhof KR, van den Wildenberg WP, Segalowitz SJ, Carter CS. Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: The role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain Cogn 2004; 56: 129-140.
156. Coffman JA, Bornstein RA, Olson SC, Schwarzkopf SB, Nasrallah HA. Cognitive impairment and cerebral structure by MRI in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27: 1188-1196.
157. Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JR et al. Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature 1997; 386: 824-827.
158. Rajkowska G. Morphometric methods for studying the prefrontal cortex in suicide victims and psychiatric patients. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997; 836: 253-268.
159. Selemon LD, Rajkowska G. Cellular pathology in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex distinguishes schizophrenia from bipolar disorder. Curr Mol Med 2003; 3: 427-436.
160. Bearden CE, Hoffman KM, Cannon TD. The neuropsychology and neuroanatomy of bipolar affective disorder: A critical review. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3: 106-150.
161. Malhi GS, Ivanovski B, Szekeres V, Olley A. Bipolar disorder: It's all in your mind? The neuropsychological profile of a biological disorder. Can J Psychiatry 2004; 49: 813-819.
162. Quraishi S, Frangou S. Neuropsychology of bipolar disorder: A review. J Affect Disord 2002; 72: 209-226.
163. Clark L, Goodwin GM. State- and trait-related deficits in sustained attention in bipolar disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 254: 61-68.
164. Dickstein DP, Treland JE, Snow J et al. Neuropsychological performance in paediatric bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 32-39.
165. Maser JD, Akiskal HS, Schettler P et al. Can temperament identify affectively ill patients who engage in lethal or near-lethal suicidal behaviour? A 14-year prospective study. Suicide Life Threat Behav 2002; 32: 10-32.
166. Oquendo MA, Galfalvy H, Russo S et al. Prospective study of clinical predictors of suicidal acts after a major depressive episode in patients with major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1433-1441.
167. Askenazy FL, Sorci K, Benoit M, Lestideau K, Myquel M, Lecrubier Y. Anxiety and impulsivity levels identify relevant subtypes in adolescents with at-risk behaviour. J Affect Disord 2003; 74: 219-227.
168. Keilp JG, Sackeim HA, Brodsky BS, Oquendo MA, Malone KM, Mann JJ. Neuropsychological dysfunction in depressed suicide attempters. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 735-741.
169. Baxter LR, Jr, Schwartz JM, Phelps ME et al. Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 243-250.
170. Blumberg HP, Stern E, Ricketts S et al. Rostral and orbital prefrontal cortex dysfunction in the manic state of bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1986-1988.
171. Strakowski SM, Adler CM, Holland SK, Mills NP, DelBello MP, Eliassen JC. Abnormal fMRI brain activation in euthymic bipolar disorder patients during a counting Stroop interference task. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1697-1705.
172. Berns GS, Martin M, Proper SM. Limbic hyperreactivity in bipolar II disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 304-306.
173. Winsberg ME, Sachs N, Tate DL, Adalsteinsson E, Spielman D, Ketter TA. Decreased dorsolateral prefrontal N-acetyl aspartate in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47: 475-481.
174. Cecil KM, DelBello MP, Morey R, Strakowski SM. Frontal lobe differences in bipolar disorder as determined by proton MR spectroscopy. Bipolar Disord 2002; 4: 357-365.
175. van der Knaap MS, van der Grond J, Luyten PR, den Hollander JA, Nauta JJ, Valk J. 1H and 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain in degenerative cerebral disorders. Ann Neurol 1992; 31: 202-211.
176. Clark JB. N-acetyl aspartate: A marker for neuronal loss or mitochondrial dysfunction. Dev Neurosci 1998; 20: 271-276.
177. Chang K, Adleman N, Dienes K, Barnea-Goraly N, Reiss A, Ketter T. Decreased N-acetylaspartate in children with familial bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53: 1059-1065.
178. Castillo M, Kwock L, Courvoisie H, Hooper SR. Proton MR spectroscopy in children with bipolar affective disorder: Preliminary observations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000; 21: 832-838.
179. Davanzo P, Thomas MA, Yue K et al. Decreased anterior cingulate myo-inositol/creatine spectroscopy resonance with lithium treatment in children with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2001; 24: 359-369.
180. Moore GJ, Bebchuk JM, Hasanat K et al. Lithium increases N-acetyl-aspartate in the human brain: In vivo evidence in support of bcl-2's neurotrophic effects? Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 1-8.
181. Silverstone PH, Wu RH, O'Donnell T, Ulrich M, Asghar SJ, Hanstock CC. Chronic treatment with lithium, but not sodium valproate, increases cortical N-acetyl-aspartate concentrations in euthymic bipolar patients. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 18: 73-79.
182. Brambilla P, Stanley JA, Sassi RB et al. 1H MRS study of dorsolateral
183. Silverstone PH, McGrath BM, Kim H. Bipolar disorder and myo-inositol: A review of the magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings. Bipolar Disord 2005; 7: 1-10.
184. Stork C, Renshaw PF. Mitochondrial dysfunction in bipolar disorder: evidence from magnetic resonance spectroscopy research. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 900-919.
185. Frey R, Metzler D, Fischer P et al. Myo-inositol in depressive and healthy subjects determined by frontal 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 1.5 tesla. J Psychiatr Res 1998; 32: 411-420.
186. Moore GJ, Bebchuk JM, Parrish JK et al. Temporal dissociation between lithium-induced changes in frontal lobe myo-inositol and clinical response in manic-depressive illness. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1902-1908.
187. Moore CM, Breeze JL, Gruber SA et al. Choline, myo-inositol and mood in bipolar disorder: A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study of the anterior cingulate cortex. Bipolar Disord 2000; 2: 207-216.
188. Kato T, Shioiri T, Murashita J et al. Lateralized abnormality of high-energy phosphate metabolism in the frontal lobes of patients with bipolar disorder detected by phase-encoded 31P-MRS. Psychol Med 1995; 25: 557-566.
189. Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Inubushi T. Brain phosphorous metabolism in depressive disorders detected by phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1992; 26: 223-230.
190. Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Hamakawa H, Inubushi T. Reduction of brain phosphocreatine in bipolar II disorder detected by phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1994; 31: 125-133.
191. Yildiz A, Sachs GS, Dorer DJ, Renshaw PF. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings in bipolar illness: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res 2001; 106: 181-191.
192. Kato T, Shioiri T, Takahashi S, Inubushi T. Measurement of brain phosphoinositide metabolism in bipolar patients using in vivo 31P-MRS. J Affect Disord 1991; 22: 185-190.
193. Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Inubushi T. Alterations in brain phosphorous metabolism in bipolar disorder detected by in vivo 31P and 7Li magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1993; 27: 53-59.
194. Deicken R, Fein G, Weiner M. Abnormal frontal lobe phosphorous metabolism in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 915-918.
195. Kato T, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Hamakawa H, Inubushi T, Takahashi S. Phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy and ventricular enlargement in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 1994; 55: 41-50.
196. Kato T, Murashita J, Kamiya A, Shioiri T, Kato N, Inubushi T. Decreased brain intracellular pH measured by 31P-MRS in bipolar disorder: A confirmation in drug-free patients and correlation with white matter hyperintensity. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 248: 301-306.
197. Davanzo P, Yue K, Thomas MA et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of bipolar disorder versus intermittent explosive disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 1442-1452.
198. Elliott R, Ogilvie A, Rubinsztein JS, Calderon G, Dolan RJ, Sahakian BJ. Abnormal ventral frontal response during performance of an affective go/ no go task in patients with mania. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 1163-1170.
199. Lawrence NS, Williams AM, Surguladze S et al. Subcortical and ventral prefrontal cortical neural responses to facial expressions distinguish patients with bipolar disorder and major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 578-587.
200. Oquendo MA, Placidi GP, Malone KM et al. Positron emission tomography of regional brain metabolic responses to a serotonergic challenge and lethality of suicide attempts in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 14-22.
201. Mann JJ. Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci 2003; 4: 819-828.
202. Placidi GP, Oquendo MA, Malone KM, Huang YY, Ellis SP, Mann JJ. Aggressivity, suicide attempts and depression: Relationship to cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolite levels. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 783-791.
203. Carmichael ST, Price JL. Architectonic subdivision of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 1994; 346: 366-402.
204. Hirayasu Y, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF et al. Subgenual cingulate cortex volume in first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1091-1093.
205. Goodwin GM, Cavanagh JT, Glabus MF, Kehoe RF, O'Carroll RE, Ebmeier KP. Uptake of 99mTc-exametazime shown by single photon emission computed tomography before and after lithium withdrawal in bipolar patients: associations with mania. Br J Psychiatry 1997; 170: 426-430.
206. Dager S, Friedman S, Parow A et al. Brain metabolic alterations in medication-free patients with bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61: 450-458.
207. Hamakawa H, Murashita J, Yamada N, Inubushi T, Kato N, Kato T. Reduced intracellular pH in the basal ganglia and whole brain measured by 31P-MRS in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 58: 82-88.
208. Yildiz A, Sachs G, Dorer D, Renshaw P. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings in bipolar illness: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res 2001; 106: 181-191.
209. Modica-Napolitano JS, Renshaw PF. Ethanolamine and phosphoethanolamine inhibit mitochondrial function in vitro: Implications for mitochondrial dysfunction hypothesis in depression and bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 55: 273-277.
210. Pandey GN, Dwivedi Y, Rizavi HS, Ren X, Conley RR. Decreased catalytic activity and expression of protein kinase C isozymes in teenage suicide victims: A postmortem brain study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61: 685-693.
211. Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Adler C, Cecil DM, Sax KW. Neuroimaging in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2000; 2: 148-164.
212. Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Adler CM. The functional neuroanatomy of bipolar disorder: A review of neuroimaging findings. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 105-116.
213. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV, Spencer T, Wilens TE, Wozniak J. Current concepts in the validity, diagnosis and treatment of paediatric bipolar disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2003; 6: 293-300.
214. Wozniak J. Recognizing and managing bipolar disorder in children. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 (Suppl. 1): 18-23.
215. DelBello MP, Soutullo CA, Hendricks W, Niemeier RT, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM. Prior stimulant treatment in adolescents with bipolar disorder: Association with age at onset. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3: 53-57.
216. Soutullo CA, DelBello MP, Ochsner JE et al. Severity of bipolarity in hospitalized manic adolescents with history of stimulant or antidepressant treatment. J Affect Disord 2002; 70: 323-327.
217. Ghaemi SN, Hsu DJ, Soldani F, Goodwin FK. Antidepressants in bipolar disorder: The case for caution. Bipolar Disord 2003; 5: 421-433.
218. Anderson IM, Clark L, Elliott R, Kulkarni B, Williams SR, Deakin JF. 5-HT (2C) receptor activation by m-chlorophenylpiperazine detected in humans with fMRI. Neuroreport 2002; 13: 1547-1551.
219. Del-Ben CM, Deakin JF, McKie S et al. The effect of citalopram pretreatment on neuronal responses to neuropsychological tasks in normal volunteers: An FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005; 30: 1724-1734.
220. McKie S, Del-Ben C, Elliott R et al. Neuronal effects of acute citalopram detected by pharmacoMRI. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 180: 680-686.
221. Gruber SA, Rogowska J, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Decreased activation of the anterior cingulate in bipolar patients: An fMRI study. J Affect Disord 2004; 82: 191-201.