Functional anatomy of thalamus and basal ganglia

Child's Nervous System

Volumn 18, Issue 8, 2002, Pages 386-404

  Herrero, Maria Trinidad ^a   Barcia, Carlos ^a   Navarro, Juana Mari ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MURCIA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Anatomy; Basal ganglia; Behavioural disorders; Motor disorders; Thalamus

Indexed keywords

ANESTHESIA; APATHY; ASSOCIATION; ATAXIA; ATTENTION; BASAL GANGLION; BEHAVIOR; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BODY MOVEMENT; BRAIN ASYMMETRY; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN INFARCTION; CAUDATE NUCLEUS; COGNITION; DYSTONIA; EFFERENT NERVE; EMOTION; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYNDROME; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM; FRONTAL LOBE; FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY; HEMISPHERIC DOMINANCE; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; LEARNING; MOTIVATION; MOTOR SYSTEM; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUTAMEN; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SOMATOSENSORY DISORDER; SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM; STEREOTYPY; SYMPTOM; THALAMOCORTICAL TRACT; THALAMUS; VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT; WILSON DISEASE; WORKING MEMORY;

BASAL GANGLIA; BRAIN MAPPING; HUMANS; MOTOR ACTIVITY; MOVEMENT; MOVEMENT DISORDERS; NEURAL PATHWAYS; NEURONS, AFFERENT; NEURONS, EFFERENT; PARKINSON DISEASE; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE; THALAMUS;

EID: 0036704630     PISSN: 02567040     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00381-002-0604-1     Document Type: Review

References (203)

1. Adams NC, Lozsadi DA, Guillery RW (1997) Complexities in the thalamocortical and corticothalamic pathways. Eur J Neurosci 9:204-209
2. Afifi AK (1994) Basal ganglia: functional anatomy and physiology, II. J Child Neurol 9:352-361
3. Akopyan NS, Baklavadzhyan OG, Sarkisyan NV (2000) The effects of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus on respiratory neurons of the medulla oblongata and respiration in rats in conditions of hypoxia. Neurosci Behav Physiol 30:449-453
4. Al-Chaer ED, Lawand NB, Westlund KN, Willis WD (1996) Visceral nociceptive input into the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus: a new function for the dorsal column pathway. J Neurophysiol 76:2661-2674
5. Alexander GE, Crutcher MD (1990) Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits: neural substrates of parallel processing. Trends Neurosci 13:266-271
6. Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL (1986) Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 9:357-381
7. Anastasopoulos D, Bronstein AM (1999) A case of thalamic syndrome: somatosensory influences on visual orientation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:390-394
8. Barat M, Mazaux JM, Bioulac B, Giroire JM, Vital C, Arné L (1981) Troubles du langage de type aphasique et lésions putamino-caudées. Observation anatomo-clinique. Rev Neurol 137:343-356
9. Barbas H (2000) Connections underlying the synthesis of cognition, memory, and emotion in primate prefrontal cortices. Brain Res Bull 52:319-330
10. Barriga F, Ruiz Dominguez JA, Velayos JL (1997) Insomnio familiar: una enfermedad priónica humana que abre las puertas a un mayor conocimiento del tálamo. Rev Med Univ Navarra 41:224-228
11. Berendsen HW, Gronewegen HJ (1991) Restricted cortical terminal fields of the midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei in the rat. Neuroscience 42:73-102
12. Bhatia KP, Marsden CD (1994) The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. Brain 117:859-876
13. Bhatia KP, Lera G, Luthert PJ, Marsden CD (1994) Vascular chorea: case reported with pathology. Mov Disord 9:447-450
14. Bickle J, Bernstein M, Heatley M, Worley C, Stiehl S (1999) A functional hypothesis for LGN-V1-TRN connectivities suggested by computer simulation. J Comput Neurosci 6:251-261
15. Blomqvist A, Ericson AC, Craig AD, Broman J (1996) Evidence for glutamate as a neurotransmitter in spinothalamic tract terminals in the posterior region of owl monkeys. Exp Brain Res 108:33-44
16. Blomqvist A, Zhang ET, Craig AD (2000) Cytoarchitectonic and immunohistochemical characterization of a specific pain and temperature delay, the posterior portion of the ventral medial nucleus, in the human thalamus. Brain 123:3601-3619
17. Boussaoud D, Kermadi I (1997) The primate striatum: neuronal activity in relation to spatial attention versus motor preparation. Eur J Neurosci 9:2152-2168
18. Brandt T, Steinke W, Thic A, Pessin MS, Caplan LR (2000) Posterior cerebral artery territory infarcts: clinical features, infarcts topography, causes and outcome. Multicenter results and a review of the literature. Cerebrovasc Dis 10:170-182
19. Brown J, Bullock D, Grossberg S (1999) How the basal ganglia use parallel excitatory and inhibitory learning pathways to selectively respond to unexpected rewarding cues. J Neurosci 19:10502-10511
20. Buchel C, Josephs O, Rees G, Turner R, Frith CD, Friston KJ (1998) The functional anatomy of attention to visual motion. A functional MRI study. Brain 121:1281-1294
21. Burgel U, Schormann T, Schleicher A, Zilles K (1999) Mapping of histologically identified long fiber tracts in human cerebral hemispheres to the MRI volume of a reference brain: position and spatial variability of the optic radiation. Neuroimage 10:489-499
22. Canales JJ, Graybiel AM (2000) A measure of striatal function predicts motor stereotypy. Nat Neurosci 3:377-383
23. Canavan AGM, Nixon PD, Passingham RE (1989) Motor learning in monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) with lesions in motor thalamus. Exp Brain Res 77:113-126
24. Chandler MJ, Hobbs SF, Fu QG, Kenshalo DR, Blair RW, Foreman RD (1992) Responses of neurons in ventroposterolateral nucleus of primate thalamus to urinary bladder distension. Brain Res 571:26-34
25. Chen W, Zhu XH (2001) Correlation of activation sizes between lateral geniculate nucleus and primary visual cortex in humans. Magn Reson Med 45:202-205
26. Chen W, Zhu XH, Thulborn KR, Ugurbil K (1999) Retinotopic mapping of lateral geniculate nucleus in humans using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:2430-2434
27. Churchill L, Kalivas PW (1999) The involvement of the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus and the midbrain extrapyramidal area in locomotion elicited from the ventral pallidum. Behav Brain Res 104:63-71
28. Cola MG, Gray DN, Seltzer B, Cusick CG (1999) Human thalamus: neurochemical mapping of inferior pulvinar complex. Neuroreport 16:3733-3738
29. Collins P, Wilkinson LS, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW, Roberts AC (2000) The effect of dopamine depletion from the caudate nucleus of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) on tests of prefrontal cognitive function. Behav Neurosci 114:3-17
30. Cossete M, Levesque M, Parent A (1999) Extrastriatal dopaminergic innervation of human basal ganglia. Neurosci Res 34:51-54
31. Cox CL, Huguenard JR, Prince DA (1997) Nucleus reticularis neurons mediate diverse inhibitory effects in thalamus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:8854-8859
32. Crabtree JW, Collingridge GL, Isaac JT (1998) A new intrathalamic pathway linking modality-related nuclei in the dorsal thalamus. Nat Neurosci 1:389-394
33. Craig AD, Bushnell MC, Zhang ET, Blomqvist A (1994) A thalamic nucleus specific for pain and temperature sensation. Nature 372:770-773
34. Crutchfield JS, Sawaya R, Meyers CA, Moore BD (1994) Postoperative mutism in neurosurgery. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg 81:115-121
35. Damasio AR, Damasio H, Rizzo M, Varney N, Gersh F (1982) Aphasia with non-hemorrhagic lesion in the basal ganglia and internal capsule. Arch Neurol 39:15-24
36. Davis KD, Tasker RR, Kiss ZH, Hutchison WD, Dostrovsky JO (1995) Visceral pain evoked by thalamic microstimulation in humans. Neuroreport 26:369-374
37. Davis KD, Lozano RM, Manduch M, Tasker RR, Kiss ZH, Dostrovsky JO (1999) Thalamic relay site for cold perception in humans. J Neurophysiol 81:1970-1973
38. Debakan A (1953) Human thalamus. An anatomical developmental and pathological study. I. Division of the human adult thalamus into nuclei by use of the cytomyeloarchitectonic method. J Comp Neurol 99:639-667
39. Debakan A (1954) Human thalamus. An anatomical developmental and pathological study: development of the human thalamic nuclei. J Comp Neurol 100:63-97
40. De Biasi S, Amadeo A, Spreafico R, Rustioni A (1994) Enrichment of glutamate immunoreactivity in lemniscal terminals in the ventropostero lateral thalamic nucleus of the rat: an immunogold and WGA-HRP study. Anat Rec 240:131-140
41. Demierre B, Rondot P (1983) Dystonia caused by putamino-capsulo-caudate vascular lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 46:404-409
42. Denny-Brown D (1962) The basal ganglia and their relation to disorders of movement. Oxford University Press, London
43. Denny-Brown D (1968) Symposium on disease of the basal ganglia. Nature of dystonia. Rev Bras Med 25:769-773
44. De Salles AA, Bittar GT Jr (1994) Thalamic pain syndrome: anatomic and metabolic correlation. Surg Neurol 41:147-151
45. Destée A, Muller JP, Vermersch P, Pruvo JP, Warot P (1990) Hemiballisme. Hemichorée. Infarctus striatal. Rev Neurol 146:150-152
46. Duncan GH, Kupers RC, Marchand S, Villemure JG, Gybels JM, Bushnell MC (1998) Stimulation of human thalamus for pain relief: possible modulatory circuits revealed by positron emission tomography. J Neurophysiol 80:3326-3330
47. Engelborghs S, Marien P, Martin JJ, De Deyn PP (1998) Functional anatomy, vascularisation and pathology of the human thalamus. Acta Neurol Belg 98:252-265
48. Engelborghs S, Marien P, Pickutt BA, Verstraeten S, De Deyn PP (2000) Loss of psychic self-activation after paramedian bithalamic infarction. Stroke 31:1762-1765
49. Ergenzinger ER, Glasier MM, Hahm JO, Pons TP (1998) Cortically induced thalamic plasticity in the primate somatosensory system. Nat Neurosci 1:226-229
50. Fearnley JM, Lees AJ (1991) Ageing and Parkinson's disease: substantia nigra regional selectivity. Brain 114:2283-2301
51. Fenelon G, Francois C, Percheron G, Yelnik J (1991) Topographic distribution of the neurons of the central complex (centre median-parafascicular complex) and of other thalamic neurons projecting to the striatum in macaques. Neuroscience 45:495-510
52. Ferrier D (1876) The functions of the brain. London
53. Fischer C, Bognar L, Turjman F, Lapras C (1995) Auditory evoked potentials in a patient with a unilateral lesion of the inferior colliculus and medial geniculate body. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 96:261-267
54. Foreman RD (1999) Mechanism of cardiac pain. Annu Rev Physiol 61:143-147
55. Francois C, Yelnik J, Percheron G, Fenelon G (1994) Topographic distribution of the axonal endings from the sensorimotor and associative striatum in the macaque pallidum and substantia nigra. Exp Brain Res 102:305-318
56. Freed CR, Greene PE, Breeze RE, Tsai WY, DuMouchel W, Kao R, Dillon S, Winfield H, Culver S, Trojanowski JQ, Eidelberg D, Fahn S (2001) Transplantation of embryonic dopamine neurons for severe Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 34:710-719
57. Fukutake T, Hattori T (1998) Auditory illusions caused by a small lesion in the right medial geniculate body. Neurology 51:1469-1471
58. Gerfen CR (1984) The neostriatal mosaic: compartmentalization of corticostriatal input and striatonigral output systems. Nature 311:461-464
59. Giagheddu M, Tamburini G, Piga M, Tacconi P, Giagheddu A, Serra A, Siotto P, Satta L, Demelia L, Marrosu F (2001) Comparison of MRI, EEG, EPs and ECD-SPECT in Wilson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand 103:71-81
60. Glass M, Dragunow M, Faull RL (1997) Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: a detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study in the fetal, neonatal and adult human brain. Neuroscience 77:299-318
61. Graveland GA, Williams RS, DiFiglia M (1985) Evidence for degenerative and regenerative changes in neostriatal spiny neurons in Huntington's disease. Science 227:770-773
62. Groenewegen HJ, Berendse HW (1994) The specificity of the "nonspecific" midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei. Trends Neurosci 17:52-57
63. Guillery RW (1995) Anatomical evidence concerning the role of the thalamus in corticocortical communication: a brief review. J Anat 187:583-592
64. Guillery RW, Feig SL, Lozsadi DA (1998) Paying attention to the thalamic reticular nucleus. Trends Neurosci 21:28-32
65. Guridi J, Herrero MT, Luquin MR, Guillen J, Ruberg M, Laguna J, Vila M, Javoy-Agid F, Agid Y, Hirsch EC, Obeso JA (1996) Subthalamotomy in parkinsonian monkeys. Behavioural and biochemical analysis. Brain 119:1717-1727
66. Haber SN, Kunishio K, Mizobuchi M, Lynd-Balta E (1995) The orbital and medial prefrontal circuit through the primate basal ganglia. J Neurosci 15:4851-4867
67. Hassler R (1982) Architectonic organization of the thalamic nuclei. In: Schaltenbrand G, Walker AE (eds) Stereotaxy of the human brain - anatomical, physiological and clinical applications, 2nd edn. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 140-180
68. Hayase N, Miyashita N, Endo K, Narabayasi H (1998) Neuronal activity in GP and Vim of parkinsonian patients and clinical changes of tremor through surgical interventions. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 71:20-28
69. Henderson JM, Carpenter K, Cartwright H, Halliday GM (2000) Loss of thalamic intralaminar nuclei in progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson's disease: clinical and therapeutic implications. Brain 123:1410-1421
70. Herrero MT, Hirsch EC, Kastner AM, Ruberg M, Luquin MR, Laguna J, Javoy-Agid F, Obeso JA, Agid Y (1993) Does neuromelanin contribute to the vulnerability of catecholaminergic neurons in monkeys intoxicated with MPTP? Neuroscience 56:499-511
71. Herrero MT, Augood SJ, Hirsch EC, Javoy-Agid F, Agid Y, Obeso JA, Emson PC (1995) Effects of 1-DOPA on preproenkephalin and preprotachykinin gene expression in the MPTP-treated monkeys striatum. Neuroscience 68:1189-1198
72. Herrero MT, Augood SJ, Asensi H, Hirsch EC, Agid Y, Obeso JA, Emson PC (1996) Effects of 1-DOPA-therapy on dopamine D2 receptor mRNA expression in the striatum of MPTP-intoxicated parkinsonian monkeys. Mol Brain Res 42:149-155
73. Herrero MT, Levy R, Ruberg M, Javoy-Agid F, Luquin MR, Agid Y, Hirsch EC, Obeso JA (1996) Glutamic acid decarboxylase mRNA expression in medial and lateral pallidal neurons in the MPTP-treated monkeys and patients with Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol 69:209-216
74. Herrero MT, Levy R, Ruberg M, Luquin MR, Villares J, Guillen J, Faucheux B, Javoy-Agid F, Guridi J, Agid Y, Obeso JA, Hirsch EC (1996) Consequence of nigrostriatal denervation and 1-DOPA therapy on the expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase messenger RNA in the pallidum. Neurology 47:219-224
75. Hess WR (1954) Diencephalon: autonomic and extrapyramidal functions. Grune and Stratton, New York
76. Hirai T, Jones EG (1989) A new parcellation of the human thalamus on the basis of histochemical staining. Brain Res Rev 14:1-34
77. Holsapple JW, Preston JB, Strick PL (1991) The origin of thalamic inputs to the hand representation in the primary motor cortex. J Neurosci 11:2644-2654
78. Hoover JE, Strick PL (1993) Multiple output in the basal ganglia. Science 259:819-821
79. Houk JC, Wise SP (1995) Distributed modular architectures linking basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex: their role in planning and controlling action. Cereb Cortex 2:95-110
80. Huguenard JR (1999) Neuronal circuitry of thalamocortical epilepsy and mechanisms of antiabsence drug action. Adv Neurol 79:991-999
81. Illinsky IA, Kultas-Illinsky K (1987) Sagittal cytoarchitectonic maps of the Macaca mulatta thalamus with a revised nomenclature of motor-related nuclei validated by observations on their connectivity. J Comp Neurol 262:331-364
82. Illinsky IA, Ambardekar AV, Kultas-Illinsky K (1999) Organization of projections from the anterior pole of the nucleus reticularis thalami (NRT) to subdivisions of the motor thalamus: light and electron microscopic studies in the rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol 409:369-384
83. Jeanmonod D, Magnin M, Morel A (1994) Chronic neurogenic pain and the medial thalamotomy. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 83:702-707
84. Joel D (2001) Open interconnected model of basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuitry and its relevance to the clinical syndrome of Huntington's disease. Mov Disord 16:407-423
85. Johnson MD, Ojemann GA (2000) The role of the human thalamus in language and memory: evidence from electrophysiological studies. Brain Cogn 42:218-230
86. Jones EG (1985) The thalamus. Plenum, New York
87. Jones EG (1990) Correlation and revised nomenclature of ventral nuclei in the thalamus of human and monkey. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 54/55:1-20
88. Jones EG (2000) Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 23:1-37
89. Kalashnikova LA, Gulevskaya TS, Kashina EM (1999) Disorders of higher mental functions due to single infarctions in the thalamus and in the area of the thalamofrontal tracts. Neurosci Behav Physiol 29:397-403
90. Kastner AM, Herrero MT, Hirsch EC, Guillen J, Luquin MR, Javoy-Agid F, Obeso JA, Agid Y (1994) Decreased tyrosine hydroxylase content in the dopaminergic neurons of MPTP-intoxicated monkeys: effect of levodopa and GM1 ganglioside therapy. Ann Neurol 36:206-214
91. Kim JS, Suh DC (2001) Hemiballism-hemichorea and posterior communicating artery stenosis. Eur Neurol 45:182-183
92. Kiss ZH, Dostrovsky JO, Tasker RR (1994) Plasticity in human somatosensory thalamus as a result of deafferentation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 62:153-163
93. Knowlton BJ, Mangels JA, Squire LR (1996) A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science 273:1399-1402
94. Kölliker A (1896) Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen. Nervensysteme des Menschen und der Thiere, vol 2, 6th edn. Engelman, Leipzig
95. Kolomiets BP, Deniau JM, Mailly P, Mént́rey A, Glowinski J, Thierry AM (2001) Segregation and convergence of information flow through the cortico-subthalamic pathways. J Neurosci 21:5764-5772
96. Korstzewa RM (1995) Dopamine receptor sensitivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 19:1-17
97. Krause M, Fogel W, Heck A, Hacke W, Bonsanto M, Trenkwalder C, Tronnier V (2001) Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: subthalamic nucleus versus globus pallidus internus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70:464-470
98. Kretschmann HJ, Weinrich W (1998) Neurofunctional systems. 3D reconstructions with correlated neuroimaging. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 110-117
99. Kunzle H (1977) Projections from the primary somatosensory cortex to basal ganglia and thalamus in the monkey. Exp Brain Res 30:481-491
100. Laplane D, Baulac M, Widlocher D, Dubois B (1984) Pure psychic akinesia with bilateral lesions of basal ganglia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47:377-385
101. Laplane D, Levasseur M, Pillon B, Dubois B, Baulac M, Mazoyer B, Tran Dinh S, Sette G, Danze F, Baron JC (1989) Obsessive-compulsive and other behavioural changes with bilateral basal ganglia lesions. A neuropsychological, magnetic resonance imaging and positron tomography study. Brain 112:699-725
102. Lawrence AD (2000) Error correction and the basal ganglia: similar computations for action, cognition and emotion? Trends Cogn Sci 4:365-367
103. Lee MS, Marsden CD (1994) Movement disorders following lesions of the thalamus or subthalamic region. Mov Disord 9:493-507
104. Lee MS, Rinne JO, Ceballos-Baumann A, Thompson PD, Marsden CD (1994) Dystonia after head trauma. Neurology 44:1374-1378
105. Lenz FA, Byl NN (1999) Reorganization in the cutaneous core of the human thalamic principal somatic sensory nucleus (Ventral caudal) in patients with dystonia. J Neurophysiol 82:3204-3212
106. Lenz FA, Dougherty PM (1998) Neurons in the human thalamic somatosensory nucleus (Ventralis caudalis) respond to innocuous cool and mechanical stimuli. J Neurophysiol 79:2227-2230
107. Lenz FA, Jaeger CJ, Seike MS, Lin YC, Reich SG, DeLong MR, Vitek JL (1999) Thalamic single neuron activity in patients with dystonia: dystonia-related activity and somatic sensory reorganization. J Neurophysiol 82:2372-2392
108. Lera G, Scipioni O, Garcia S, Cammarota A, Fischbein G, Gershanik O (2000) A combined pattern of movement disorders resulting from posterolateral thalamic lesions of a vascular nature: a syndrome with clinico-radiologic correlation. Mov Disord 15:120-126
109. Levy R, Herrero MT, Ruberg M, Villares J, Faucheux B, Guridi J, Guillen J, Luquin MR, Javoy-Agid F, Obeso JA, Agid Y, Hirsch EC (1995) Effects of nigrostriatal denervation and 1-DOPA therapy on the GABA-ergic neurons of the striatum in MPTP-treated monkeys and Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurosci 7:1199-1209
110. Levy R, Hazrati LN, Herrero MT, Vila M, Hassani OK, Mouroux M, Ruberg M, Asensi H, Agid Y, Feger J, Obeso JA, Parent A, Hirsch EC (1997) Re-evaluation of the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia in normal and parkinsonian states. Neuroscience 76:335-343
111. Liu X, Aziz TZ, Miall RC, Rowe J, Alusi SH, Bain PG, Stein JF (2000) Frequency analysis of involuntary movements during wrist tracking: a way to identify MS patients with tremor who benefit from thalamotomy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 74:53-62
112. Litvan I, Dickson DW, Buttner-Ennever JA, Delacourte A, Hutton M, Dubois B, Golbe LI, Hallet M, Schellenberg GD, Standert D, Brooks DJ, Price D, et at (2000) Research goals in progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord 15:446-458
113. Lozano A, Linazasoro G (2000) Surgical treatment of dystonia. Rev Neurol 30:1073-1076
114. Lozano AM, Lang AE, Hutchinson WD, Dostrowsky JO (1998) New developments in understanding the etiology of Parkinson's disease and its treatment. Curr Opin Neurobiol 8:783-790
115. Lumer ED, Edelman GM, Tononi G (1997) Neural dynamics in a model of the thalamocortical system. I. Layers, loops and the emergence of fast synchronous rhythms. Cereb Cortex 7:207-227
116. Lytton WW, Destexhe A, Sejnowski TJ (1996) Control of slow oscillations in the thalamocortical neuron: a computer model. Neuroscience 70:673-684
117. Macchi G, Bentivoglio M (1999) Is the "nonspecific" thalamus still "nonspecific"? Arch Ital Biol 137:201-226
118. Macchi G, Jones EG (1997) Towards an agreement on terminology of nuclear and subnuclear divisions of the motor thalamus. J Neurosurg 86:670-685
119. Maraganore DM, Lees AJ, Marsden CD (1991) Complex stereotypies after right putaminal infarction: a case report. Mov Disord 6:358-361
120. Marsden JF, Ashby P, Limousin-Dowsey P, Rothwell JC, Brown P (2000) Coherence between cerebellar thalamus, cortex and muscle in man: cerebellar thalamus interactions. Brain 123:1459-1470
121. Martin JP (1927) Hemichorea resulting from a local lesion of the brain (the syndrome of the body of Luys). Brain 50:637-651
122. Martin JP (1957) Hemichorea (hemiballismus) without lesions in the corpus Luysii. Brain 80:1-10
123. Mas JL, Launay M, Derouesne C (1987) Hemiballism and CT-documented lacunar infarct in the lenticular nucleus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 50:104-105
124. Miyai I, Suzuki T, Kang J, Volpe BT (2000) Improved functional outcome in patients with hemorrhagic stroke in putamen and thalamus compared with those with stroke restricted to the putamen or thalamus. Stroke 31:1365-1369
125. Moreaud O, Pellat J, Charnallet A, Carbonell S, Brennen T (1995) Déficit de la production et de l'apprentissage des noms propres après lésion ischemique tubero-thalamique gauche. Rev Neurol 151:93-99
126. Morel A, Magnin M, Jeanmonod D (1997) Multiarchitectonic and stereotactic atlas of the human thalamus. J Comp Neurol 387:588-630
127. Morrow TJ, Casey KL (1992) State-related modulation of thalamic somatosensory responses in the awake monkey. J Neurophysiol 67:305-317
128. Mrabet A, Mrad-Ben Hammouda I, Abroug Z, Smiri W, Haddad A (1994) Infarctus bilatéral des noyaux caudés. Rev Neurol 150:67-69
129. Munkle MC, Waldvogel HJ, Fault RL (1999) Calcium-binding protein immunoreactivity delineates the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus in the human brain. Neuroscience 90:485-491
130. Nakano K (2000) Neural circuits and topographical organization of the basal ganglia and related regions. Brain Dev 22:S5-S16
131. Nakano K, Kayahara T, Tsutsumi T, Ushiro H (2000) Neural circuits and functional organization of the striatum. J Neurol 247:1-15
132. Nauta WJH, Mehler WR (1966) Projections from the lentiform nucleus in the monkey. Brain Res 1:3-42
133. Neau JP, Bogousslavsky J (1996) The syndrome of posterior choroidal artery territory infarction. Ann Neurol 39:779-788
134. Nisbet AP, Foster OJ, Kingsbury A, Lees AJ, Marsden CD (1994) Nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression in human subthalamic nucleus, striatum and globus pallidus: implications for basal ganglia function. Mot Brain Res 22:329-332
135. Nowinski WL (1998) Anatomical targeting in functional neurosurgery by the simultaneous use of multiple Schaltenbrand-Wahren brain atlas microseries. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 71:103-116
136. Ogawa K, Toita T, Kakinohana Y, Tominaga D, Miyagi K, Yoshii Y, Horikawa A, Sawada S (1999) A patient with improvement in short-term memory disturbance brought about by radiation therapy for germinoma involving Papez circuit. Radiat Med 17:317-322
137. Ohye C (1986) Rôle des noyaux thalamiques dans l'hypertonie et le tremblement de la maladie de Parkinson. Rev Neurol 142:362-367
138. Ohye C, Hirai T, Miyazaki M, Shibazaki T, Nakajima H (1982) Vim thalamotomy for the treatment of various kinds of tremor. Appl Neurophysiol 45:245-250
139. Ohye C, Shibazaki T, Hirai T, Kawashima Y, Hirato M, Matsumura M (1985) Plastic change of the thalamic organization in the cases with tremor after stroke. Appl Neurophysiol 61:488-500
140. Olszewski J (1952) The thalamus of Macaca Mulatta. An atlas for use with the stereotaxic instruments. Karger, Basel
141. Ongur D, Price JL (2000) The organization of networks within the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex of rats, monkeys and humans. Cereb Cortex 10:206-219
142. Pakkenberg B (1993) Leucotomized schizophrenics loss neurons in the mediodorsal nucleus. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 19:373-380
143. Papez JW (1937) A proposed mechanism of emotion. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 38:725-743
144. Pare D, Steriade M (1993) The reticular thalamic nucleus projects to the contralateral dorsal thalamus in macaque monkey. Neurosci Lett 154:96-100
145. Parent A (1990) Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci 13:254-258
146. Parent A, Hazrati LN (1993) Anatomical aspects of information processing in primate basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci 16:111-116
147. Parent A, Sato F, Wu Y, Gauthier J, Lévesque M, Parent M (2000) Organization of the basal ganglia: the importance of axonal collateralization. Trends Neurosci 23:S20-S27
148. Parker A, Eacott MJ, Gaffan D (1997) The recognition memory deficit caused by mediodorsal thalamic lesion in non-human primates: a comparison with rhinal cortex lesion. Eur J Neurosci 9:2423-2431
149. Pepin EP, Auray-Pepon L (1993) Selective dorsolateral frontal lobe dysfunction associated with diencephalic amnesia. Neurology 43:733-741
150. Percheron G (1982) Arterial supply of the thalamus. In: Schaftenbrand G, Walker AE (eds) Stereotaxy of the human brain, 2nd edn. Thieme, Stuttgart, pp 218-232
151. Percheron G, Francois C, Talbi B, Meder JF, Fenelon G, Yelnik J (1991) The primate motor thalamus analyzed with reference to subcortical afferent territories. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 93:32-41
152. Percheron G, Fenelon G, Leroux-Hugon V, Feve A (1994) History of the basal ganglia system. Slow development of a major cerebral system. Rev Neurol 150:543-554
153. Percheron G, François C, Yelnik J, Fénelon G, Talbi B (1994) The basal ganglia related system of primates: definition, description and informational analysis. In: Percheron G, Mckenzie JS, Feger J (eds) The basal ganglia IV. Plenum, New York, pp 3-20
154. Percheron G, François C, Talbi B, Yelnik J, Fénelon G (1996) The primate motor thalamus. Brain Res Rev 22:93-181
155. Pitman RK (1987) A cybernetic model of obsessive-compulsive psychopathology. Comp Psychiatry 28:334-343
156. Plenz D, Kitai ST (1999) A basal ganglia pacemaker formed by the subthalamic nucleus and external globus pallidus. Nature 400:677-682
157. Poellinger A, Thomas R, Lio P, Lee A, Makris N, Rosen BR, Kwong KK (2001) Activation and habituation in olfaction - an fMRI study. Neuroimage 13:547-560
158. Postle BR, Corkin S, Jonides J, Smith EE, Growdon JH (1997) Spatial, but not object, delayed response is impaired in early Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology 11:171-179
159. Puelles L, Rubinstein JL (1993) Expression patterns of homeobox and other putative regulatory genes in the embryonic mouse forebrain suggest a neuromeric organization. Trends Neurosci 16:472-479
160. Raeva S (1986) Localization in human thalamus of units triggered during "verbal commands", voluntary movements and tremor. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 63:160-173
161. Ralston HJ, Ralston DD (1992) The primate dorsal spinothalamic tract: evidence for a specific termination in the posterior nuclei (Po/SG) of the thalamus. Pain 48:107-118
162. Ralston HJ, Ralston DD (1994) Medial lemniscal and spinal projections to the macaque thalamus: an electron microscopic study of differing GABAergic circuitry serving thalamic somatosensory mechanisms. J Neurosci 14:2485-2502
163. Ray JP, Price JL (1993) The organization of projections from the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus to orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in macaque monkeys. J Comp Neurol 337:1-3
164. Ray JP, Russchen FT, Fuller TA, Price JL (1992) Sources of presumptive glutamatergic/aspartatergic afferents to the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus in the rat. J Comp Neurol 320:435-456
165. Redgrave P, Prescott TJ, Gurney K (1999) The basal ganglia: a vertebrate solution to the selection problem? Neuroscience 89:1009-1023
166. Rogers RD, Andrews TC, Grasby PM, Brooks DJ, Robbins TW (2000) Contrasting cortical and subcortical activations produced by attentional-set shifting and reversal learning in humans. J Cogn Neurosci 12:142-162
167. Rolls ET (1994) Neurophysiology and cognitive functions of the striatum. Rev Neurol 150:648-660
168. Sadikot AF, Parent A, François C (1992) Efferent connections of the centromedian and parafascicular thalamic nuclei in the squirrel monkey: a PHA-L study of subcortical projections. J Comp Neurol 315:137-159
169. Sakai ST, Patton K (1993) Distribution of cerebellothalamic and nigrothalamic projections in the dog: a double anterograde tracing study. J Comp Neurol 330:183-194
170. Sakai ST, Stepniewska I, Qi HX, Kaas JH (2000) Pallidal and cerebellar afferents to pre-supplementary motor area thalamocortical neurons in the owl monkey: a multiple labeling study. J Comp Neurol 417:164-180
171. Salinas E, Opris I, Zainos A, Hernandez A, Romo R (2000) Motor and non motor roles of the cortico basal ganglia circuitry. In: Miller R, Wickens J (eds) Brain dynamics and the striatal complex. Conceptual advances in brain research, vol 1. Harwood Academic, pp 237-255
172. Schultz W, Dayan P, Montague PR (1997) A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275:1593-1599
173. Selden N, Geula C, Hersch L, Mesulam MM (1994) Human striatum: chemoarchitecture of the caudate nucleus, putamen and ventral striatum in health and Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 60:621-636
174. Selemon LD, Goldman-Rakic PS (1985) Longitudinal topography and interdigitation of corticostriatal projections in the rhesus monkey. J Neurosci 5:776-794
175. Shintani S, Tsuruoka S, Shiigai T (2000) Pure sensory stroke caused by a cerebral hemorrhage: clinical-radiologic correlations in seven patients. Am J Neuroradiol 21:515-520
176. Sidibe M, Bevan MD, Bolam JP, Smith Y (1997) Efferent connections of the internal globus pallidus in the squirrel monkey. I. Topography and synaptic organization of the pallidothalamic projection. J Comp Neurol 382:323-347
177. Smith Y, Kieval JZ (2000) Anatomy of the dopamine system in the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci 23:S28-S33
178. Smith Y, Bennett BD, Bolam JP, Parent A, Sadikot AF (1994) Synaptic relationships between dopaminergic afferents and cortical or thalamic input in the sensorimotor territory of the striatum in monkey. J Comp Neurol 344:1-19
179. Smythies J (1997) The functional neuroanatomy of awareness: with a focus on the role of various anatomical systems in the control of intermodal attention. Conscious Cogn 6:455-481
180. Steriade M, Contreras D, Amzica F, Timofeev I (1996) Synchronization of fast (30-40 Hz) spontaneous oscillations in intrathalamic and thalamocortical networks. J Neurosci 16:2788-2808
181. Strafella A, Ashby P, Munz M, Dostrovsky JO, Lozano AM, Lang
182. Strick PL (1985) How do basal ganglia and cerebellum gain access to the cortical motor areas? Behav Brain Res 18:107-123
183. Strub RL (1989) Frontal lobe syndrome in a patient with bilateral globus pallidus lesions. Arch Neurol 46:1024-1027
184. Tan EK (1999) Parkinson's disease surgery: advances and future strategies. Int J Clin Pract 53:623-626
185. Taniwaki T, Tagawa K, Sato F, Iino K (2000) Auditory agnosia restricted to environmental sounds following cortical deafness and generalized auditory agnosia. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 102:156-162
186. Tasker RR, Kiss ZH (1995) The role of the thalamus in functional neurosurgery. Neurosurg Clin N Am 6:73-104
187. Turner RS, DeLong MR (2000) Corticostriatal activity in primary motor cortex of the macaque. J Neurosci 20:7096-7108
188. Van der Werf YD, Witter MP, Uylings HB, Jolles J (2000) Neuropsychology of infarctions in the thalamus: a review. Neuropsychologia 38:613-627
189. Vidailhet M, Bonnet AM, Marconi R, Gouider-Khouja N, Agid Y (1994) Do parkinsonian symptoms and levodopa-induced dyskinesias start in the foot? Neurology 44:1613-1616
190. Vila M, Herrero MT, Levy R, Faucheux B, Ruberg M, Guillen J, Luquin MR, Guridi J, Javoy-Agid F, Agid Y, Obeso JA, Hirsch EC (1996) Consequences of nigrostriatal denervation on the GABAergic neurons of substantia nigra pars reticulata and superior colliculus in parkinsonian syndromes. Neurology 46:802-809
191. Vila M, Levy R, Herrero MT, Ruberg M, Faucheux B, Obeso JA, Agid Y, Hirsch EC (1996) Consequences of nigrostriatal denervation on the functioning of the basal ganglia in human and non-human primates: an in situ hybridization study of cytochrome oxidase subunit I mRNA. J Neurosci 17:765-773
192. Visser PJ, Krabbendam L, Verhey FR, Hofman PA, Verhoeven WM, Tuinier S, Wester A, Den Berg YW, Goessens LF, Werf YD, Jolles J (1999) Brain correlates of memory dysfunction in alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:774-778
193. Von Donkelaar P, Stein JF, Passingham RE, Miall RC (1999) Neuronal activity in the primate motor thalamus during visually triggered and internally generated limb movements. J Neurophysiol 82:934-945
194. Wessel K, Vieregge P, Kessler C, Kompf D (1994) Thalamic stroke: correlation of clinical symptoms, somatosensory evoked potentials and CT findings. Acta Neurol Scand 90:167-173
195. Whittle IR, O'Sullivan M, Sellar R, Ironside J (1994) Teaching image-guided stereotactic methodology and functional neuroanatomy of the thalamus and pallidum: a simple ex vivo technique. Br J Neurosurg 8:579-583
196. Willis WD, Westlund KN (1997) Neuroanatomy of the pain system and of the pathways that modulate pain. J Clin Neurophysiol 14:2-31
197. Wise S (1996) The role of the basal ganglia in procedural memory. Semin Neurosci 8:39-46
198. Wise SP, Murray EA, Gerfen CR (1996) The frontal cortex-basal ganglia system in primates. Crit Rev Neurobiol 10:317-356
199. Yamashiro K, Tomiyama N, Ishida A, Terada Y, Mukawa J, Yoshii Y, Tasker RR, Albe-Fessard D (1997) Characteristics of neurons with high-frequency discharge in the central nervous system and their relationship to chronic pain. Experimental and clinical investigations. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 68:149-154
200. Yan W, Suga N (1998) Corticofugal modulation of the midbrain frequency map in the bat auditory system. Nat Neurosci 1:54-58
201. Yoshida M (1992) Neurophysiological atlas created by mapping of clinical responses elicited on electrical stimulation of the human thalamus. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 58:39-44
202. Young RF, Jacques DS, Rand RW, Copcutt BR (1994) Medial thalamotomy with the Leksell gamma knife for treatment of chronic pain. Acta Neurochir Suppl 62:105-110
203. Zhang Y, Suga N, Yan J (1997) Corticofugal modulation of frequency processing in bat auditory system. Nature 387:900-903