Club drugs as causal risk factors for HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men: A review

Substance Use and Misuse

Volumn 41, Issue 10-12, 2006, Pages 1551-1601

  Drumright, Lydia N ^a   Patterson, Thomas L ^b   Strathdee, Steffanie A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Bisexual; Causal association; Causal risk factor; Club drugs; Gay; HIV; Illicit drug use; MSM; STD; STI; Substance use

Indexed keywords

4 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; AMPHETAMINE; FLUNITRAZEPAM; KETAMINE; LYSERGIDE; METHAMPHETAMINE; NITRITE; SILDENAFIL;

DATA BASE; DRUG ABUSE; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; MENTAL HEALTH; PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SEXUAL FUNCTION; SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE; VASODILATATION;

HIV INFECTIONS; HOMOSEXUALITY, MALE; HUMANS; MALE; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL SUPPORT; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33749136839     PISSN: 10826084     EISSN: 15322491     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10826080600847894     Document Type: Review

References (240)

1. Abramson, H. A., Evans, L. T. (1954). Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD 25). II. Psychobiological effects on the Siamese fighting fish. Science 120:990-991.
2. Aldridge, J., Measham, F. (1999). Sildenafil (Viagra) is used as a recreational drug in England. British Medical Journal 318:669.
3. Ambroziak, J., Levy, J. A. (1999). Epidemiology, natural history, and pathogenesis of HIV infection. In: Holmes, K. K., Sparling, P. F., Mardh, P., Lemon, S. M., Stamm, W. E., Piot, P., Wasserheit, J. N., eds. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 251-258.
4. Anglin, D., Spears, K. L., Hutson, H. R. (1997). Flunitrazepam and its involvement in date or acquaintance rape. Academic Emergency Medicine 4:323-326.
5. Anonymous. (1968). Abuse of methylamphetamine. Lancet 2:818.
6. Anonymous. (2002). Special report: club drugs & HIV. Drug treatment best hope for meth-using MSMs. Researchers want to get word out about problem. AIDS Alert 17:143-138.
7. Anonymous. (2004a). HIV-STD synergy worries public health officials. Drugs, Viagra play role in problem. AIDS Alert 19:81-83.
8. Anonymous. (2004b). Research shows "poppers" use in connected with infection among MSM. Little is done to address problem. AIDS Alert 19:61, 63-61, 64.
9. Archibald, C. P., Sutherland, J., Geduld, J., Sutherland, D., Yan, P. (2003). Combining data sources to monitor the HIV epidemic in Canada. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:S24-S32.
10. Banta-Green, C., Goldbaum, G., Kingston, S., Golden, M., Harruff, R., Logan, B. K. (2005). Epidemiology of MDMA and associated club drugs in the Seattle area. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1295-1315.
11. Barrett, S. P., Gross, S. R., Garand, I., Pihl, R. O. (2005). Patterns of simultaneous polysubstance use in Canadian rave attendees. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1525-1537.
12. Becker, M. H., Joseph, J. G. (1988). AIDS and behavioral change to reduce risk: a review. American Journal of Public Health 78:394-410.
13. Beyrer, C., Razak, M. H., Jittiwutikarn, J., Suriyanon, V., Vongchak, T., Srirak, N., Kawichai, S., Tovanabutra, S., Rungruengthanakit, K., Sawanpanyalert, P., Sripaipan, T., Celentano, D. D. (2004). Methamphetamine users in northern Thailand: changing demographics and risks for HIV and STD among treatment-seeking substance abusers. International Journal of STD and AIDS 15:697-704.
14. Bing, E. G., Burnam, A., Longshore, D., Fleishman, J. A., Sherbourne, C. D., London, A. S., Turner, B. J., Eggan, F., Beckman, R., Vitiello, B., Morton, S. C., Orlando, M., Bozzette, S. A., Ortiz-Barron, L., Shapiro, M. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry 58:721-728.
15. Blattner, W. A., O'Brien, T. R., Mueller, N. E. (1997). Retroviruses: human Immunodeficiency virus. In: Evans, A. S., Kaslow, R. A., eds. Viral Infections of Humans. 4th ed. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company, pp. 713-783.
16. Blower, S. M., van Griensven, G. J. P. (1993). Effect of differential mortality on risk-behavior change in cohort studies. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 6:1364-1367.
17. Bluthenthal, R. N., Kral, A. H., Gee, L., Lorvick, J., Moore, L., Seal, K., Edlin, B. R. (2001). Trends in HIV seroprevalence and risk among gay and bisexual men who inject drugs in San Francisco, 1988 to 2000. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:264-269.
18. Botnick, M. R., Heath, K. V., Cornelisse, P. G., Strathdee, S. A., Martindale, S. L., Hogg, R. S. (2002). Correlates of suicide attempts in an open cohort of young men who have sex with men. Canadian Journal of Public Health-Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique 93:59-62.
19. Boyce, E. G., Umland, E. M. (2001). Sildenafil citrate: a therapeutic update. Clinical Therapeutics 23:2-23.
20. Brecht, M., O'Brien, A., von Mayrhauser, C., Anglin, M. D. (2004). Methamphetmaine use and gender differences. Addictive Behaviors 29:89-106.
21. Breslau, K. (2002). The "sextasy" craze. Clubland's dangerous party mix: Viagra and ecstasy. Newsweek 139:30.
22. Britt, G. C., McCance-Katz, E. F. (2005). A brief overview of the clinical pharmacology of "club drugs". Substance Use & Misuse 40:1189-1201.
23. Buchbinder, S., Vittinghoff, E., Heagerty, P., Celum, C., Seage, G., Judson, F. N., McKirnan, D., Mayer, K., Koblin, B. (2005). Sexual risk, nitrite inhalant use, and lack of circumcision associated with HIV seroconversion inmen who have sex with men in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 39:82-89.
24. Buffum, J. (1982). Pharmacosexology; the effects of drugs on sexual function a review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 14:5-41.
25. Bull, S. S., Piper, P., Rietmeijer, C. (2002). Men who have sex with men and also inject drugs-profiles of risk related to the synergy of sex and drug injection behaviors. Journal of Homosexuality 42:31-51.
26. Burcham, J. L., Tindall, B., Marmor, M., Cooper, D. A., Berry, G., Penny, R. (1989). Incidence and risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion in a cohort of Sydney homosexual men. The Medical Journal of Australia 150:634-639.
27. Cachay, E., Mar-Tang, M., Mathews, W. C. (2004). Screening for potentially transmitting sexual risk behaviors, urethral sexually transmitted infection, and sildenafil use among males entering care for HIV infection. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 18:349-354.
28. Calzavara, L., Burchell, A. N., Major, C., Remis, R. S., Corey, P., Myers, T., Millson, P., Wallace, E. (2002). Increases in HIV incidence among men who have sex with men undergoing repeat diagnostic HIV testing in Ontario, Canada. Aids 16:1655-1661.
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1998). Outbreak of primary and secondary syphilis - Gilford County, North Carolina, 1996-1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47:1070-1073.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1999). Increases in unsafe sex and rectal gonorrhea among men who have sex with men - San Francisco, California, 1994-1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48:45-48.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Primary and secondary syphilis among men who have sex with men - New York City, 2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51:853-856.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003a). Increases in HIV diagnoses - 29 states, 1999-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52:1145-1148.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003b). Internet use and early syphilis infection among men who have sex with men - San Fransisco, California, 1999-2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52:1229-1233.
34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003c). Primary and secondary syphilis - United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52:1117-1120.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004a). HIV transmission among black college students and non-student men who have sex with men - North Carolina, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53:731-734.
36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004b). Increase in fluoroquinolone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae among men who have sex with men - United States, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53:335-338.
37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004c). Resurgence of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases among men who have sex with men - King County, Washington, 1997-1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48:773-777.
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004d). Trends in primary and secondary syphilis and HIV infections in men who have sex with men - San Fransisco and Los Angeles, California, 1998-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53:575-578.
39. Chang, Y., Chen, T. L., Sheu, J. R., Chen, R. M. (2005). Suppressive effects of ketamine on macrophage functions. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 204:27-35.
40. Chen, S. Y., Gibson, S., Weide, D., McFarland, W. (2003). Unprotected anal intercourse between potentially HIV-serodiscordant men who have sex with men, San Francisco. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:166-170.
41. Chesney, M. A., Barrett, D. C., Stall, R. (1998). Histories of substance use and risk behavior: Precursors to HIV seroconversion in homosexual men. American Journal of Public Health 88:113-116.
42. Chesson, H. W., Dee, T. S., Aral, S. O. (2003). AIDS mortality may have contributed to the decline in syphilis rates in the United States in the 1990s. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 30:419-424.
43. Chmiel, J., Detels, R., Kaslow, R. A., Van Raden, M., Kingsley, L. A., Brookmeyer, R. (1997). Factors associated with prevalent HIV infection in the multicenter AIDS cohort. American Journal of Epidemiology 126:568-577.
44. Chu, P. L., McFarland, W., Gibson, S., Weide, D., Henne, J., Miller, P., Partridge, T., Schwarcz, S. (2003). Viagra use in a community-recruited sample of men who have sex with men, San Francisco. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 33:191-193.
45. Clatts, M. C., Goldsamt, L. A., Yi, H. (2005). Club drug use among young men who have sex with men in NYC: a preliminary epidemiological profile. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1317-1330.
46. Clatts, M. C., Sothern, J. L. (1999). Challenges in research on drug and sexual risk practices of men who have sex with men: applications of ethnography in HIV epidemiology and prevention. AIDS and Behavior 4:169-179.
47. Clutterbuck, D. J., Gorman, D., McMillan, A., Lewis, R., Macintyre, C. C. (2001). Substance use and unsafe sex amongst homosexual men in Edinburgh. AIDS Care 13:527-535.
48. Colfax, G., Coates, T. J., Husnik, M. J., Huang, Y., Buchbinder, S., Koblin, B., Chesney, M., Vittinghoff, E. (2005). Longitudinal patterns of methamphetamine, popper (amyl nitrite), and cocaine use and high-risk sexual behavior among a cohort of san francisco men who have sex with men. Journal of Urban Health 82:i62-i70.
49. Colfax, G., Vittinghoff, E., Husnik, M. J., McKirnan, D., Buchbinder, S., Koblin, B., Celum, C., Chesney, M., Huang, Y. J., Mayer, K., Bozeman, S., Judson, F. N., Bryant, K. J., Coates, T. J. (2004). Substance use and sexual risk: a participant- and episode-level analysis among a cohort of men who have sex with men. American Journal of Epidemiology 159:1002-1012.
50. Colfax, G. N., Mansergh, G., Guzman, R., Vittinghoff, E., Marks, G., Rader, M., Buchbinder, S. (2001). Drug use and sexual risk behavior among gay and bisexual men who attend circuit parties: a venue-based comparison. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:373-379.
51. Connor, T. J. (2004). Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy"): a stressor on the immune system. Immunology 111:357-367.
52. Craib, K. J., Weber, A. C., Cornelisse, P. G., Martindale, S. L., Miller, M. L., Schechter, M. T., Strathdee, S. A., Schilder, A., Hogg, R. S. (2000). Comparison of sexual behaviors, unprotected sex, and substance use between two independent cohorts of gay and bisexualmen. AIDS 14:303-311.
53. Crepaz, N., Hart, T. A., Marks, G. (2004). Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior: a meta-analytic review. JAMA 292:224-236.
54. Crosby, G. M., Stall, R. D., Paul, J. P., Barrett, D. C. (1996). Condom use among gay/bisexual male substance abusers using the timeline follow-back method. Addictive Behaviors 21:249-257.
55. Crosby, R., Diclemente, R. J. (2004). Use of recreational Viagra among men having sex with men. Sexually Transmitted Infections 80:466-468.
56. D'Souza, G., Lee, J. H., Paffel, J. M. (2003). Outbreak of syphilis among men who have sex with men in Houstin, Texas. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 30:872-873.
57. Degenhardt, L., Copeland, J., Dillon, P. (2005). Recent trends in the use of "club drugs": an Australian review. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1241-1256.
58. Degenhardt, L., Topp, L. (2003). "Crystal meth" use among polydrug users in Sydney's dance party subculture: characteristics, use patterns and associated harms. International Journal of Drug Policy 14:17-24.
59. de la Torre, R., Farre, M., Roset, P. N., Pizarro, N., Abanades, S., Segura, M., Segura, J., Cami, J. (2004). Human pharmacology of MDMA - pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 26:137-144.
60. del Romero, J., Castilla, J., Garcia, S., Clavo, P., Ballesteros, J., Rpdriguez, C. (2001). Time trend in incidence of HIV seroconversion among homosexual men repeatedly tested in Madrid, 1988-2000. AIDS 15:1319-1321.
61. Delate, T., Simmons, V. A., Motheral, B. R. (2004). Patterns of sildenafil among commercially insured adults in the United States: 1998-2002. International Journal of Impotence Research 16:313-318.
62. Detels, R., English, P., Visscher, B. R., Jacobson, L., Kingsley, L. A., Chmiel, J. S., Dudley, J. P., Eldred, L. J., Ginzburg, H. M. (1989). Seroconversion, sexual activity, and condom use among 2915 HIV seronegative men followed for up to 2 years. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2:77-83.
63. Dewit, J. B. F., Vandenhoek, J. A. R., Sandfort, T. G. M., vanGriensven, G. J. P. (1993). Increase in Unprotected Anogenital Intercourse Among Homosexual Men. American Journal of Public Health 83:1451-1453.
64. Diaz, R. M., Heckert, A. L., Sanchez, J. (2005). Reasons for stimulant use among latino gay men in san francisco: a comparison between methamphetamine and cocaine users. Journal of Urban Health 82:i71-i78.
65. Difranceisco, W., Ostrow, D. G., Chmiel, J. S. (1996). Sexual adventurism, high-risk behavior, and human immunodeficiency virus-1 seroconversion among the Chicago MACS-CCS cohort, 1984 to 1992. A case-control study. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 23:453-460.
66. Dodds, J. P., Mercey, D. E., Parry, J. V., Johnson, A. M. (2004). Increasing risk behaviour and high levels of undiagnosed HIV infection in a community sample of homosexual men. Sexually Transmitted Infections 80:236-240.
67. Doll, L. S., Beeker, C. (1996). Male bisexual behavior and HIV risk in the United States: synthesis of research with implications for behavioral interventions. AIDS Education and Prevention 8:205-225.
68. Dowd, S. M., Strong, M. J., Janicak, P. G., Negrusz, A. (2002). The Behavioral and cognitive effects of two benzodiazepines associated with drug-facilitated sexual assault. Journal of Forensic Sciences 47:1101-1107.
69. Dukers, N. H. T. M., Spaargaren, J., Geskus, R. B., Beijnen, J., Coutinho, R. A., Fennema, H. S. A. (2002). HIV incidence on the increase among homosexualmen attending an Amsterdam sexually transmitted disease clinic: using a novel approach for detecting recent infections. AIDS 16:F19-F24.
70. Eid, J. F. (2000). Sildenafil citrate: current clinical experience. International Journal of Impotence Research 12:S62-S66.
71. Ekmekcioglu, O., Inci, M., Demirci, D., Tatlisen, A. (2005). Effects of sildenafil citrate on ejaculation latency, detumescence time, and refractory period: placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover laboratory setting study. Urology 65:347-352.
72. Ekstrand, M. L., Stall, R. D., Paul, J. P., Osmond, D. H., Coates, T. J. (1999). Gay men report high rates of unprotected anal sex with partners of unknown or discordant HIV status. AIDS 13:1525-1533.
73. Elford, J., Bolding, G., Sherr, L. (2002). High-risk sexual behaviour increases among London gay men between 1998 and 2001: what is the role of HIV optimism?. AIDS 16:1537-1544.
74. Farre, M., Teran, M. T., Cami, J. (1996). A comparison of the acute behavioral effects of flunitrazepam and triazolam in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 125:1-12.
75. Fendrich, M., Johnson, T. (2005). Editors' introduction to this special issue on club drug epidemiology. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1179-1184.
76. Fendrich, M., Wislar, J. S., Johnson, T. P., Hubbell, A. (2003). A contextual profile of club drug use among adults in Chicago. Addiction 98:1693-1703.
77. Fernandez, M. I., Bowen, G. S., Varga, L. M., Collazo, J. B., Hernandez, N., Perrino, T., Rehbein, A. (2005a). High rates of club drug use and risky sexual practices among Hispanic men who have sex with men in Miami, Florida. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1347-1362.
78. Fernandez, M. I., Perrino, T., Collazo, J. B., Varga, L. M., Marsh, D., Hernandez, N., Rehbein, A., Bowen, G. S. (2005b). Surfing new territory: club-drug use and risky sex among Hispanic men who have sex with men recruited on the internet. Journal of Urban Health 82:i79-i88.
79. Figueroa, J. P., Brathwaite, A., Morris, J., Ward, E., Peruga, A., Blanttner, W., Vermund, S. H., Hayes, R. (1994). Rising HIV-1 prevalence among sexually transmitted disease clinic attendees in Jamacia: traumatic sex and genital ulcers as risk factors. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Human Retrovirology 7:310-316.
80. Finer, L. B., Darroch, J. E., Singh, S. (1999). Sexual partnership patterns as a behavioral risk factor for sexually transmitted diseases. Family Planning Perspectives 31:228-236.
81. Fox, K. K., del Rio, C., Holmes, K. K., Hook, E. W., Judson, F. N., Knapp, J. S., Procop, G. W., Wang, S. A., Whittington, W. L. H., Levine, W. C. (2001). Gonorrhea in the HIV era: a reversal in trends among men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health 91:959-964.
82. Freese, T. E., Miotto, K., Reback, C. J. (2002). The effects and consequences of selected club drugs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 23:151-156.
83. French, R., Power, R. (1998). A qualitative study of the social contextual use of alkyl nitrites (poppers) among targeted groups. Journal of Drug Issues 28:57-76.
84. French, R. S., Power, R. (2001). Self-reported effects of alkyl nitrate use: a qualitative study amongst targeted groups. Addiction Research 5:519-548.
85. Frosch, D., Shoptaw, S., Huber, A., Rawson, R. A., Ling, W. (1996). Sexual HIV risk among gay and bisexual male methamphetamine abusers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 13:483-486.
86. Gable, R. S. (2004). Acute toxic effects of club drugs. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 36:303-313.
87. Gahlinger, P. M. (2004). Club drugs: MDMA, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), Rohypnol, and ketamine. American Family Physician 69:2619-2626.
88. Gillies, H. C., Roblin, D., Jackson, G. (2002). Coronary and systemic hemodynamic effects of sildenafil citrate: from basic science to clinical studies in patients with cardiovascular disease. International Journal of Cardiology 86:131-141.
89. Gleghorn, A. A., Marx, R., Vittinghoff, E., Katz, M. H. (1998). Associations between drug use patterns and HIV risks among homeless, runaway, and street youth in Northern California. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 51:219-227.
90. Glossmann, H., Petrischor, G., Bartsch, G. (1999). Molecular mechanisms of the effects of sildenafil (Viagra®. Experimental Gerontology 34:305-318.
91. Goldsamt, L. A., O'Brien, J., Clatts, M. C., McGuire, L. S. (2005). The relationship between club drug use and other drug use: a survey of New York City middle school students. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1539-1555.
92. Gordis, L. (1996). Epidemiology. 1st ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
93. Gorman, E. M., Barr, B. D., Hansen, A., Robertson, B., Green, C. (1997). Speed, sex, gay men, and HIV: ecological and community perspectives. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 11:505-515.
94. Gorman, E. M., Carroll, R. T. (2000). Substance abuse and HIV: considerations with regard to methamphetamines and other recreational drugs for nursing practice and research. Journal of Associated Nurses AIDS Care 11:51-62.
95. Gorman, M., Halkitis, P. (2003). Methamphetamine and club drug use and HIV. Focus 18:5-6.
96. Green, A. I. (2003). "Chem friendly": the institutional basis of "club drug" use in a sample of urban gay men. Deviant Behavior 24:427-447.
97. Greenwood, G. L., White, E. W., Page-Shafer, K., Bein, E., Osmond, D. H., Paul, J., Stall, R. D. (2001). Correlates of heavy substance use among young gay and bisexual men: The San Francisco Young Men's Health Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 61:105-112.
98. Halkitis, P. N., Fischgrund, B. N., Parsons, J. T. (2005). Explanations for methamphetamine use among gay and bisexual men in New York City. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1331-1345.
99. Halkitis, P. N., Green, K. A., Mourgues, P. (2005). Longitudinal investigation of methamphetamine use among gay and bisexual men in New York City: findings from Project BUMPS. Journal of Urban Health 82:i18-i25.
100. Halkitis, P. N., Parsons, J. T., Stirratt, M. J. (2001). A double epidemic: crystal methamphetamine drug use in relation to HIV transmission among gay men. Journal of Homosexuality 41:17-35.
101. Hamers, F. F., Downs, A. M. (2003). HIV in central and eastern Europe. Lancet 361:1035-1044.
102. Hamouda, O. (2003). HIV/AIDS surveillance in Germany. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:S49-S54.
103. Harawa, N. T., Greenland, S., Bingham, T. A., Johnson, D. F., Cochran, S. D., Cunningham, W. E., Celentano, D. D., Koblin, B. A., LaLota, M., MacKellar, D. A., McFarland, W., Shehan, D., Stoyanoff, S., Thiede, H., Torian, L., Valleroy, L. A. (2004). Associations of race/ethnicity with HIV prevalence and HIV-related behaviors among young men who have sex with men in 7 urban centers in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35:526-536.
104. Hill, A. B. (1965). The environment and disease: associations or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58:295-300.
105. Hirshfield, S., Remien, R. H., Humberstone, M., Walavalkar, I., Chiasson, M. A. (2004). Substance use and high-risk sex among men who have sex with men: a national online study in the USA. AIDS Care 16:1036-1047.
106. Hirshfield, S., Remien, R. H., Walavalkar, I., Chiasson, M. A. (2004). Crystal methamphetamine use predicts incident STD infection among men who have sex with men recruited online: a nested case-control study. Journal of Medical Internet Research 6:e41.
107. Hogg, R. S., Weber, A. E., Chan, K., Martindale, S., Cook, D., Miller, M. L., Craib, K. J. P. (2001). Increasing incidence of HIV infections among young gay and bisexual men in Vancouver. AIDS 15:1321-1322.
108. Hopkins, S., Lyons, F., Coleman, C., Courtney, G., Bergin, C., Mulcahy, F. (2004). Resurgence in infectious syphilis in Ireland - an epidemiological study. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 31:317-321.
109. Inciardi, J. A. (1995). Crack, crack house sex, and HIV risk. Archives of Sexual Behavior 24:249-269.
110. Ishikura, F., Beppu, S., Hamada, T., Khandheria, B. K., Seward, J. B., Nehra, A. (2000). Effects of sildenafil citrate (Viagra) combined with nitrate on the heart. Circulation 102:2516-2521.
111. James, I. P. (1968). A methylamphetamine epidemic? Lancet 1:916.
112. James, J. S. (1998). Viagra warning re "poppers" and notice re protease inhibitors. AIDS Treat. News1.
113. Kaldor, J., McDonald, A. (2003). HIV/AIDS surveillance systems in Australia. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:S18-S23.
114. Katz, M. H., Schwarcz, S. K., Kellogg, T. A., Klausner, J. D., Dilley, J. W., Gibson, S., McFarland, W. (2002). Impact of highly active antiretroviral treatment on HIV seroincidence among men who have sex with men: San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health 92:388-394.
115. Kellogg, T. A., McFarland, W., Perlman, J. L., Weinstock, H., Bock, S., Katz, M. H., Gerberding, J. L., Bangsberg, D. R. (2001). HIV incidence among repeat HIV testers at a county hospital, San Francisco, California, USA. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28:59-64.
116. Kelly, B. C. (2005). Conceptions of risk in the lives of club drug-using youth. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1443-1459.
117. Kihara, M., Ono-Kihara, M., Feldman, M. D., Ichikawa, S., Hashimoto, S., Eboshida, A., Yamamoto, T., Kamakura, M. (2003). HIV/AIDS surveillance in Japan, 1984-2000. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32(Suppl 1):S55-S62.
118. Kim, A. A., Kent, C., Klausner, J. (2003). Risk facors for rectal gonococcal infection amidst resurgence in HIV transmssion. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 30:813-817.
119. Kim, M. T., Han, H. R., Hill, M. N., Rose, L., Roary, M. (2003). Depression, substance use, adherence behaviors, and blood pressure in urban hypertensive black men. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 26:24-31.
120. Kingsley, L. A., Detels, R., Kaslow, R., Polk, B. F., Rinaldo, C. R. Jr., Chmiel, J., Detre, K., Kelsey, S. F., Odaka, N., Ostrow, D. (1987). Risk factors for seroconversion to human immunodeficiency virus among male homosexuals. Results from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Lancet 1:345-349.
121. Kingsley, L. A., Zhou, S. Y., Bacellar, H., Rinaldo, C. R. Jr., Chmiel, J., Detels, R., Saah, A., VanRaden, M., Ho, M., Munoz, A. (1991). Temporal trends in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconversion 1984-1989. A report from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). American Journal of Epidemiology 134:331-339.
122. Klee, H., Faugier, J., Hayes, C., Boulton, T., Morris, J. (1990). AIDS-related risk behaviour, polydrug use and temazepam. Brittish Journal of Addiction 85:1125-1132.
123. Klein, M., Kramer, F. (2004). Rave drugs: pharmacological considerations. American Association of Nurse Anesthetists 72:61-67.
124. Klitzman, R. L., Greenberg, J. D., Pollack, L. M., Dolezal, C. (2002). MDMA ('ecstasy') use, and its association with high risk behaviors, mental health, and other factors among gay/bisexual men in New York City. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 66:115-125.
125. Koblin, B. A., Chesney, M. A., Husnik, M. J., Bozeman, S., Celum, C. L., Buchbinder, S., Mayer, K., McKirnan, D., Judson, F. N., Huang, Y., Coates, T. J. (2003). High-risk behaviors among men who have sex with men in 6 US cities: baseline data from the EXPLORE Study. American Journal of Public Health 93:926-932.
126. Kohrrs, R., Duriex, M. E. (1998). Ketamine: teaching an old drug new tricks. Anethesia and Analgesia 87:1186-1193.
127. Kokkevi, A., Stefanis, N., Anastasopoulou, E., Kostogianni, C. (1998). Personality disorders in drug abusers: Prevalence and their association with AXIS I disorders as predictors of treatment retention. Addictive Behaviors 23:841-853.
128. Krebs, C. P., Steffey, D. M. (2005). Club drug use among delinquent youth. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1363-1379.
129. Kuiken, C. L., van Griensven, G. J., de Vroome, E. M., Coutinho, R. A. (1990). Risk factors and changes in sexual behavior in male homosexuals who seroconverted for human immunodeficiency virus antibodies. American Journal of Epidemiology 132:523-530.
130. Kulsudjarit, K. (2004). Drug problem in southeast and southwest Asia. Annals of New York Academy of Science 1025:446-457.
131. Kunawararak, P., Beyrer, C., Natpratan, C., Feng, W., Celentano, D. D., Deboer, M., Nelson, K. E., Khamboonruang, C. (1995). The epidemiology of HIV and syphilis among male commercial sex workers in northern Thailand. AIDS 9:517-521.
132. Kurtz, S. P. (2005). Post-circuit blues: motivations and consequences of cystal meth use among gay men in Miami. AIDS and Behavior 9:63-72.
133. Kvarnstrom, A., Karlsten, R., Quiding, H., Emanuelsson, B. M., Gordh, T. (2003). The effectiveness of intravenous ketamine and lidocaine on peripheral neuropathic pain. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 47:868-877.
134. Laidler, K. A. J. (2005). The rise of club drugs in a heroin society: The case of Hong Kong. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1257-1278.
135. Lampinen, T. M., Schilder, A. J., McErlane, K., Miller, M. L., Chan, K., Schechter, M. T., Hogg, R. S. (2004). Inadvertent consumption of crystal methamphetamine sold as ecstasy in Vancouver, British Columbia and relation to sexual risk behaviors of young gay men. 15th International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm Melbourne, Australia[abstract # 998], 4-20-2004.
136. Lankenau, S. E., Clatts, M. C. (2005). Patterns of polydrug use among ketamme injectors in New York City. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1381-1397.
137. Lee, S. J., Galanter, M., Dermatis, H., McDowell, D. (2003). Circuit parties and patterns of drug use in a subset of gay men. Journal of Addictive Diseases 22:47-60.
138. Leigh, B. C., Stall, R. (1993). Substance use and risky sexual behavior for exposure to HIV: issues in methodology, interpretation, and prevention. American Psychologist 48:1035-1045.
139. Lenton, S., Boys, A., Norcross, K. (1997). Raves, drugs and experience: drug use by a sample of people who attend raves in Western Australia. Addiction 92:1327-1337.
140. Leshner, A. I. (2005). Club drugs aren't "fun drugs". NIDA Reports on Science of Drug Abuse and Addiction,. from http://www.drugabuse.gov/ Published Articles/fundrugs.html
141. Levy, K. B., O'Grady, K. E., Wish, E. D., Arria, A. M. (2005). An in-depth qualitative examination of the ecstasy experience: Results of a focus group with ecstasy-using college students. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1427-1441.
142. Loeb, L. (2004). Viagra: the science and politics of drugs, sex, and risk. Focus 19:4-7.
143. Maravelias, C., Dona, A., Athanaselis, S., Stefanidou, M., Koutselinis, A. (2000). Cytotoxic and immunomodulative effects of flunitrazepam, zipeprol and trihexyphenidyl on human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 42:205-208.
144. Mattison, A. M., Ross, M. W., Wolfson, T., Franklin, D. (2001). Circuit party attendance, club drug use, and unsafe sex in gay men. Journal of Substance Abuse 13:119-126.
145. Maxwell, J. C. (2004). Patterns of Club Drug Use in The U.S., 2004. Austin, TX: The Center for Excellence in Drug Epidemiology, The Gulf Coast Addiction Technology Transfer Center, University of Texas.
146. Maxwell, J. C. (2005). Party drugs: properties, prevalence, patterns, and problems. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1203-1240.
147. Maxwell, J. C., Spence, R. T. (2005). Profiles of club drug users in treatment. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1409-1426.
148. McCoul, M. D., Haslam, N. (2001). Predicting high risk sexual behaviour in heterosexual and homosexual men: the roles of impulsivity and sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences 31:1303-1310.
149. McCusker, J., Westenhouse, J., Stoddard, A. M., Zapka, J. G., Zorn, M. W., Mayer, K. H. (1990). Use of drugs and alcohol by homosexually active men in relation to sexual practices. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 3:729-736.
150. McElrath, K. (2005). MDMA and sexual behavior: Ecstasy users' perceptions about sexuality and sexual risk. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1461-1477.
151. McKim, W. A. (2003). Drugs and Behavior. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
152. McKirnan, D. J., Ostrow, D. G., Hope, B. (1996). Sex, drugs and escape: a psychological model of HIV-risk sexual behaviours. AIDS Care 8:655-669.
153. McKirnan, D. J., Vanable, P. A., Ostrow, D. G., Hope, B. (2001). Expectancies of sexual "escape" and sexual risk among drug and alcohol-involved gay and bisexual men. Journal of Substance Abuse 13:137-154.
154. Moatti, J. P., Dab, W., Abenham, L., Bastide, S. (1989). Modifications of sexual-behavior related to AIDS - a survey in the Paris region. Health Policy 11:15-30.
155. Molitor, F., Truax, S. R., Ruiz, J. D., Sun, R. K. (1998). Associations with methamphetamine use during sex with risky sexual behaviors and HIV infection among non-injection drug users. Western Journal of Medicine 168:93-97.
156. Morabia, A. (1995). Poppers, Kaposi's sarcoma, and HIV infection: empirical example of a strong confounding effect? Preventive Medicine 24:90-95.
157. Morgan, C. J. A., Riccelli, M., Maitland, C. H., Curran, H. V. (2004). Long-term effects of ketamine: evidence for a persisting impairment of source memory in recreational users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 75:301-308.
158. Morrill, A. C., Kasten, L., Urato, M., Larson, M. J. (2001). Abuse, addiction, and depression as pathways to sexual risk in women and men with a history of substance abuse. Journal of Substance Abuse 13:169-184.
159. Moss, A. R., Osmond, D., Bacchetti, P., Chermann, J. C., Barre-Sinoussi, F., Carlson, J. (1987). Risk factors for AIDS and HIV seropositivity in homosexualmen. American Journal of Epidemiology 125:1035-1047.
160. Mulry, G., Kalichman, S. C., Kelly, J. A. (1994). Substance use and unsafe sex among gay men - global versus situational use of substances. Journal of Sex Education & Therapy 20:175-184.
161. Murphy, G., Charlett, A., Jordan, L. F., Osner, N., Gill, O. N., Parry, J. V. (2004). HIV incidence appears constant in men who have sex with men despite widespread use of effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 18:265-272.
162. Myers, T., Aguinaldo, J. P., Dakers, D., Fischer, B., Bullock, S., Millson, P., Calzavara, L. (2004). How drug using men who have sex with men account for substance use during sexual behaviours: Questioning assumptions of HIV prevention and research. Addiction Research & Theory 12:213-229.
163. National Institute of Drug Abuse. (2001). Ecstasy: What We Know and Don't Know About MDMA. A Scientific Review. National Institute of Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health.
164. National Institute of Drug Abuse. (2004). Nationwide Drug Trends. Report no. September 2004. National Institute of Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health.
165. National Institutes on Drug Abuse. (2000). Club Drugs: what are they? NIDA Notes. from http://www.drugabuse.gov/NIDA Notes/NNVol14N6/WhatAre.html, accessed 2-2-2005
166. National Institutes on Drug Abuse. (2002). Methamphetamine: abuse and addiction. NIDA Research Report Series 02-4210. National Institute of Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health.
167. Nicholson, K. L., Balster, R. L. (2001). GHB: a new and novel drug of abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 63:1-22.
168. NIDA Community Epidemiology Work Group. (2003). Epidemiologic Trends in Drug Abuse: Advanced Report. Report no. December 2003. National Institute of Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health.
169. Ompad, D. C., Galea, S., Fuller, C. M., Phelan, D., Vlahov, D. (2004). Club drug use among minority substance users in New York City. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 36:397-399.
170. Ostrow, D., McKirnan, D. (1997). Prevention of substance-related high-risk sexual behavior among gay men: critical review of the literature and proposed harm reduction approach. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association 1:97-110.
171. Ostrow, D. E., Fox, K. J., Chmiel, J. S., Silvestre, A., Visscher, B. R., Vanable, P. A., Jacobson, L. P., Strathdee, S. A. (2002). Attitudes towards highly active antiretroviral therapy are associated with sexual risk taking among HIV-infected and uninfected homosexual men. AIDS 16:775-780.
172. Ostrow, D. G. (1999). The role of drugs in the sexual lives of men who have sex with men: continuing barriers to researching this question. AIDS and Behavior 4:205-219.
173. Ostrow, D. G., Beltran, E. D., Joseph, J. G., Difranceisco, W., Wesch, J., Chmiel, J. S. (1993). Recreational drugs and sexual behavior in the Chicago MACS/CCS cohort of homosexually active men. Chicago Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS)/Coping and Change Study. Journal of Substance Abuse 5:311-325.
174. Ostrow, D. G., DiFranceisco, W. J., Chmiel, J. S., Wagstaff, D. A., Wesch, J. (1995). A case-control study of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconversion and risk-related behaviors in the ChicagoMACS/CCS Cohort, 1984-1992. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Coping and Change Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 142:875-883.
175. Padma-Nathan, H., Eardley, I., Kloner, R. A., Laties, A. M., Montorsi, F. (2002). A 4-year update on the safety of sildenafil citrate (Viagra). Urology 60:67-90.
176. Page-Shafer, K., Veugelers, P. J., Moss, A. R., Strathdee, S., Kaldor, J. M., van Griensven, G. J. (1997). Sexual risk behavior and risk factors for HIV-1 seroconversion in homosexual men participating in the Tricontinental Seroconverter Study, 1982-1994. American Journal of Epidemiology 146:531-542.
177. Parker, G., Roy, K. (2001). Adolescent depression: a review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35:572-580.
178. Parks, K. A., Kennedy, C. L. (2004). Club drugs: reasons for and consequences of use. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 36:295-302.
179. Parrott, A., Morinan, A., Moss, M., Scholey, A. (2004). Understanding Drugs and Behaviour. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
180. Patterson, T. L., Semple, S. J. (2003). Sexual risk reduction among HIV-positive drug-using men who have sex with men. Journal of Urban Health 80:iii77-iii87.
181. Patterson, T. L., Semple, S. J., Zians, J. K., Strathdee, S. A. (2005). Methamphetamine-using HIV-positive men who have sex with men: Correlates of polydrug use. Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 82:I120-I126.
182. Purcell, D. W., Parsons, J. T., Halkitis, P. N., Mizuno, Y., Woods, W. J. (2001). Substance use and sexual transmission risk behavior of HIV-positive men who have sex with men. Journal of Substance Abuse 13:185-200.
183. Quan, V. M., Steketee, R. W., Valleroy, L., Weinstock, H., Karon, J., Janssen, R. (2002). HIV incidence in the United States, 1978-1999. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 31:188-201.
184. Reback, C. J., Grella, C. E. (1999). HIV risk behaviors of gay and bisexual male methamphetamine users contacted through street outreach. Journal of Drug Issues 29:155-166.
185. Reback, C. J., Larkins, S., Shoptaw, S. (2004). Changes in the meaning of sexual risk behaviors among gay and bisexual male methamphetamine abusers before and after drug treatment. AIDS and Behavior 8:87-98.
186. Rhodes, T. (1996). Culture, drugs and unsafe sex: confusion about casuation. Addiction 91:753-758.
187. Rhodes, T., Stimson, G. V. (1994). What is the relationship between drug taking and sexual risk? social realtions and social research. Sociology of Health and Illness 16:209-228.
188. Rietmeijer, C. A., Patnaik, J. L., Judson, F. N., Douglas, J. M. (2003). Increases in gonorrhea and sexual risk behaviors among men who have sex with men: a 12-year trend analysis at the Denver Metro Health Clinic. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 30:562-567.
189. Roiser, J. P., Sahakian, B. J. (2004). Relationship between ecstasy use and depression: a study controlling for poly-drug use. Psychopharmacology 173:411-417.
190. Romanelli, F., Smith, K. M. (2004). Recreational use of sildenafil by HIV-positive and -negative homosexual/bisexual males. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 38:1024-1030.
191. Romanelli, F., Smith, K. M., Pomeroy, C. (2003). Use of club drugs by HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative gay and bisexual men. Top. HIV Med. 11:25-32.
192. Romanelli, F., Smith, K. M., Thornton, A. C., Pomeroy, C. (2004). Poppers: Epidemiology and clinical management of inhaled nitrite abuse. Pharmacotherapy 24:69-78.
193. Ross, M. W., Mattison, A. M., Franklin, D. R. Jr. (2003). Club drugs and sex on drugs are associated with different motivations for gay circuit party attendance in men. Substance Use and Misuse 38:1173-1183.
194. Rothman, K. J., Greenland, S. (1998). Modern Epidemiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
195. Roxburgh, A., Degenhardt, L., Breen, C. (2004). Changes in patterns of drug use among injecting drug users following changes in the availability of heroin in New South Wales, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Reviews 23:287-294.
196. Rusch, M., Lampinen, T. M., Schilder, A., Hogg, R. S. (2004). Unprotected anal intercourse associated with recreational drug use among young men who have sex with men depends on partner type and intercourse role. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 31:492-498.
197. Sattah, M. V., Supawitkul, S., Dondero, T. J., Kilmarx, P. H., Young, N. L., Mastro, T. D., Chaikummao, S., Manopaiboon, C., van Griensven, F. (2002). Prevalence of and risk factors for methamphetamine use in northern Thai youth: results of an audio-computer-assisted self-interviewing survey with urine testing. Addiction 97:801-808.
198. Seage, G. R. III, Mayer, K. H., Horsburgh, C. R. Jr., Holmberg, S. D., Moon, M. W., Lamb, G. A. (1992). The relation between nitrite inhalants, unprotected receptive anal intercourse, and the risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection. American Journal of Epidemiology 135:1-11.
199. Semple, S. J., Patterson, T. L., Grant, I. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of unprotected anal intercourse in a sample of HIV positive gay men who volunteer for a sexual risk reduction intervention. AIDS Education and Prevention 12:416-430.
200. Semple, S. J., Patterson, T. L., Grant, I. (2002). Motivations associated with methamphetamine use among HIV+ men who have sex with men. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 22:149-156.
201. Semple, S. J., Patterson, T. L., Grant, I. (2004). A comparison of injection and non-injection methamphetamine-using HIV positive men who have sex with men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 76:203-212.
202. Sherr, L., Bolding, G., Maguire, M. (2000). Viagra use and sexual risk behavior among gay men in London. AIDS 14:2051-2052.
203. Shoptaw, S., Peck, J., Reback, C. J., Rotheram-Fuller, E. (2003). Psychiatric and substance dependence comorbidities, sexually transmitted diseases, and risk behaviors among methamphetamine-dependent gay and bisexual men seeking outpatient drug abuse treatment. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 35(Suppl 1):161-168.
204. Shoptaw, S., Reback, C. J., Frosch, D. L., Rawson, R. A. (1998). Stimulant abuse treatment as HIV prevention. Journal of Addictive Diseases 17:19-32.
205. Shoptaw, S., Reback, C. J., Peck, J. A., Yang, X., Rotheram-Fuller, E., Larkins, S., Veniegas, R. C., Freese, T. E., Hucks-Ortiz, C. (2004). Behavioral treatment approaches for methamphetamine dependence and HIV-related sexual risk behaviors among urban gay and bisexual men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence
206. Simmons, M. M., Cupp, M. J. (1998). Use and abuse of flunitrazepam. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 32:117-119.
207. Simons, J. S., Gaher, R. M., Correia, C. J., Bush, J. A. (2005). Club drug use among college students. Addictive Behavior 30:1619-1624.
208. Slavin, S. (2004). Crystal methamphetamine use and HIV risk. Social Research Briefs 4:1-4.
209. Smith, E. (2003). HIV/AIDS surveillance in Denmark: the challenges ahead. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 32:S33-S38.
210. Smith, K. M., Larive, L. L., Romanelli, F. (2002). Club drugs: methylenedioxymethampetamine, flunitrazepam, ketamine hydrochloride, and gamma-hydroxybutyrate. American Journal of Health Systems Pharmocology 59:1067-1076.
211. Stall, R., Purcell, D. W. (2000). Intertwining epidemics: a review of research on substance use among men who have sex with men and its connection to the AIDS epidemic. AIDS and Behavior 4:181-192.
212. Stall, R., Wiley, J. (1998). A comparison of alcohol and drug use patterns of homosexual and heterosexualmen: the San Francisco Men's Health Study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 22:63-73.
213. Stall, R. D., Hays, R. B., Waldo, C. R., Ekstrand, M., McFarland, W. (2000). The Gay '90s: a review of research in the 1990s on sexual behavior and HIV risk among men who have sex with men. AIDS 14:S101-S114.
214. Stall, R. D., Paul, J. P., Greenwood, G. L., Pollack, L. M., Bein, E., Crosby, G. M., Mills, T. C., Binson, D., Coates, T. J., Catania, J. A. (2001). Alcohol use, drug use and alcohol-realted problems among men who have sex with men: the Urban Men's Health Study. Addiction 96:1589-1601.
215. Stolte, I. G., Dukers, N. H. T. M., De Wit, J. B. F., Fennema, J. S. A., Coutinho, R. A. (2001). Increase in sexually transmitted infections among homosexual men in Amsterdam in relation to HAART. Sexually Transmitted Infections 77:184-186.
216. Stolte, I. G., Dukers, N. H. T. M., Geskus, R. B., Coutinho, R. A., De Wit, J. B. R. (2004). Homosexual men change to risky sex when perceiving less threat of HIV/AIDS since availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a longitudinal study. AIDS 18:303-309.
217. Strathdee, S. A., Hogg, R. S., Martindale, S. L., Cornelisse, P. G., Craib, K. J., Montaner, J. S., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., Schechter, M. T. (1998). Determinants of sexual risk-taking among young HIV-negative gay and bisexual men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes Hum. Retrovirol 19:61-66.
218. Strathdee, S. A., Martindale, S. L., Cornelisse, P. G., Miller, M. L., Craib, K. J., Schechter, M. T., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., Hogg, R. S. (2000). HIV infection and risk behaviours among young gay and bisexual men in Vancouver. Canadian Medical Association Journal 162:21-25.
219. Swanson, J., Cooper, A. (2003). Dangerous liaison: club drugs and HIV. Posit. Aware. 14:32-36.
220. Tabet, S. R., Krone, M. R., Paradise, M. A., Corey, L., Stamm, W. E., Celum, C. L. (1998). Incidence of HIV and sexually transmitted diseases (STD) in a cohort of HIV-negative men who have sex with men (MSM). AIDS 12:2041-2048.
221. Ter Bogt, T. F. M., Engels, R. C. M. E. (2005). "Partying" hard: Party style, motives for and effects of MDMA use at rave parties. Substance Use & Misuse 40:1479-1502.
222. Teter, C. J., Guthrie, S. K. (2001). A comprehansive review of MDMA and GHB: two common club drugs. Pharmacotherapy 21:1486-1513.
223. Thiede, H., Valleroy, L. A., MacKellar, D. A., Celentano, D. D., Ford, W. L., Hagan, H., Koblin, B. A., LaLota, M., McFarland, W., Shehan, D. A., Torian, L. V. (2003). Regional patterns and correlates of substance use among young men who have sex with men in 7 US urban areas. American Journal of Public Health 93:1915-1921.
224. Tong, T., Boyer, E. W. (2002). Club drugs, smart drugs, raves, and circuit parties: an overview of the club scene. Pediatric Emergency Care 18:216-218.
225. Topp, L., Day, C., Degenhardt, L. (2003). Changes in patterns of drug injection concurrent with a sustained reduction in the availability of heroin in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 70:275-286.
226. United States Drug Enforcement Administration. (2005). Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) "roofies,". from http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/rohypnol/ rohypnol.htm
227. United States Government Printing Office. (2000). Threat posed by the illegal importation, trafficking, and use of ecstasy and other "club" drugs. 101. 2000. Judiciary House of Representatives, Crime.
228. Urbina, A., Jones, K. (2004). Crystal methamphetamine, its analogues, and HIV infection: medical and psychiatric aspects of a new epidemic. Clinical Infectious Diseases 38:890-894.
229. Van de Ven, P., Rawstorne, P., Crawford, J., Kippax, S. (2002). Increasing proportions of Australian gay and homosexually active men engage in unprotected anal intercourse with regular and casual partners. Aids Care-Psychological and Socio-Medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV 14:335-341.
230. van der Bij, A. K., Stolte, I. G., Coutinho, R. A., Dukers, N. H. T. M. (2005). Increase of sexually transmitted infections, but not HIV, among young homosexual men in Amsterdam: are STIs still reliable markers for HIV transmission?. Sexually Transmitted Infections 81:34-37.
231. Weber, A. E., Craib, K. J., Chan, K., Martindale, S., Miller, M. L., Cook, D. A., Schechter, M., Hogg, R. (2003). Determinants of HIV serconversion in an era of increasing HIV infection among young gay and bisexual men. AIDS 17:774-777.
232. Weinstock, H., Dale, M., Gwinn, M., Satten, G. A., Kothe, D., Mei, J., Royalty, J., Linley, L., Fridlund, C., Parekh, B., Rawal, B. D., Busch, M. P., Janssen, R. S. (2002). HIV seroincidence among patients at clinics for sexually transmitted diseases in nine cities in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 29:478-483.
233. Whittington, W. L., Collis, T., Dithmer-Schreck, D., Handsfield, H. H., Shalit, P., Wood, R. W., Holmes, K. K., Celum, C. L. (2002). Sexually transmitted diseases and human immunodeficiency virus-discordant partnerships among men who have sex with men. Clinical Infectious Diseases 35:1010-1017.
234. Williams, L. A., Klausner, J. D., Whittington, W. L. H., Handsfield, H. H., Celum, C., Holmes, K. K. (1999). Elimination and reintroduction of primary and secondary syphilis. American Journal of Public Health 89:1093-1097.
235. Windle, R. C., Windle, M. (1997). An investigation of adolescents' substance use behaviors, depressed affect, and suicidal behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 38:921-929.
236. Winkelstein, W., Lyman, D. M., Padian, N., Grant, R. M., Samuel, M., Wiley, J., Anderson, R. E., Lang, W., Riggs, J., Levy, J. A. (1987a). Sexual practices and risk of infection by the human immunodeficiency virus: the San Francisco Men's Health Study. Journal of the American Medical Association 257:321-325.
237. Winkelstein, W., Samuel, M., Padian, N. S., Wiley, J. A., Lang, W., Anderson, R. E., Levy, J. A. (1987b). The San Francisco mens health study 3: reduction in human-immunodeficiency-virus transmission among homosexual and bisexualmen, 1982-86. American Journal of Public Health 77:685-689.
238. Winkelstein, W., Wiley, J. A., Padian, N. S., Samuel, M., Shiboski, M. S., Ascher, M. S., Levy, J. A. (1988). The San Francisco men's health study: continued decline in HIV seroconversion rates among homosexual/bisexual men. American Journal of Public Health 78:1472-1474.
239. Wohl, A. R., Johnson, D. F., Lu, S., Frye, D., Bunch, G., Simon, P. A. (2004). Recent increase in high-risk sexual behaviors among sexually active men who have sex with men living with AIDS in Los Angeles County. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 35:209-211.
240. Woody, G. E., Donnell, D., Seage, G. R., Metzger, D., Marmor, M., Koblin, B. A., Buchbinder, S., Gross, M., Stone, B., Judson, F. N. (1999). Non-injection substance use correlates with risky sex among men having sex with men: data from HIVNET. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 53:197-205.