Acrylamide neurotoxicity: Neurological, morhological and molecular endpoints in animal models

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 561, Issue , 2005, Pages 21-37

  LoPachin, Richard M ^a  

^a ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Distal axonopathy; Nerve terminals; Neurotoxicity; Protein adducts; Toxic neuropathy

Indexed keywords

ACRYLAMIDE; CYSTEINE; MONOMER; ACRYLAMIDE DERIVATIVE; NEUROTOXIN;

ATAXIA; CARCINOGENICITY; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL; FOOD CONTAMINATION; GRAIN; HIGH TEMPERATURE; MORPHOMETRICS; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; NERVE INJURY; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPATHY; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; POTATO; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY; REVIEW; ANIMAL; CELL MEMBRANE; CHEMISTRY; DISEASE MODEL; HUMAN; METABOLISM; NERVE CELL; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROLOGIC DISEASE; PATHOLOGY; RAT; SKELETAL MUSCLE; TEMPERATURE; TIME; TOXICITY AND INTOXICATION;

ANIMALIA; ATAXIA; SOLANUM TUBEROSUM;

ACRYLAMIDE; ACRYLAMIDES; ANIMALS; CELL MEMBRANE; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CYSTEINE; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HUMANS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; NEURONS; NEUROTOXICITY SYNDROMES; NEUROTOXINS; RATS; TEMPERATURE; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 33644864595     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/0-387-24980-X_2     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Abelli L., Ferri G.-L., Astolfi M., Conte, B., Geppetti P., Parlani M., Dahl, D., Polak, J.M. and Maggi, C.A. 1991, Acrylamide-induced visceral neuropathy: evidence for the involvement of capsaicin-sensitive nerve to the rat urinary bladder. Neuroscience 41: 311-321.
2. Abou-Donia, M.B., Ibrahim S.M., Corcoran J.J., Lack L., Friedman, M.A. and Lapadula, D.M. 1993, Neurotoxicity of glycidamide, an acrylamide metabolite, following intraperitoneal injections in rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 39: 447-464.
3. Amaratunga, A., Leeman, S.E., Kosik, K.S. and Fine, R.E. 1995, Inhibition of kinesin synthesis in vivo inhibits the rapid transport of representative proteins for three transport vesicle classes into the axon. J. Neurochem. 64: 2374-2376.
4. Barber, D., Hunt, J.R., Ehrich, M., Lehning, E.J. and LoPachin, R.M. 2001, Metabolism, toxicokinetics and hemoglobin adduct formation in rats following subacute and subchronic acrylamide dosing. NeuroToxicology, 22:341-353.
5. Becalski, A., Lau, B., Lewis, D. and Seaman, S. 2002, Acrylamide in food: occurrence and sources. Presented at the Annual Meeting of AOAC International, September 26.
6. Beckers, C.J.M., Block, M.R., Glick, B.S., Rothman, J.E and Balch, W.E. 1989, Vesicular transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi stack requires the NEM-sensitive fusion protein. Nature 339: 397-398.
7. Bergmark, E., Calleman, C.J. and Costa, L.G. 1991, Formation of hemoglobin adducts of acrylamide and its epoxide metabolite glycidamide in the rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 111:352-363.
8. Bergmark, E., Calleman, C.J., He, F. and Costa, L.G. 1993, Determination of hemoglobin adducts in humans occupationally exposed to acrylamide. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 120: 45-54.
9. Brat, D.J. and Brimijion, S. 1993, Acrylamide and glycidamide impair neurite outgrowth in differentiating NIE.115 neuroblastoma without disturbing rapid bi-directional transport of organelles observed by video microscopy. J. Neurochem. 60: 2145-2152.
10. Brimijion, W.S. and Hammond, P.I. 1985, Acrylamide neuropathy in the rat: effects on energy metabolism in sciatic nerve. Mayo Clin. Proc. 60: 3-8.
11. Bull, R.J., Robinson, M., Laurie, R.D., Stoner, G.D., Greisiger, E., Meier, J.R. and Stober, J. 1984a, Carcinogenic effects of acrylamide in sencar and A/J mice. Cancer Res 44: 107-111.
12. Bull, R.J., Robinson, M. and Stoner, G.D. 1984b, Carcinogenic activity of acrylamide in the skin and lung of Swiss-ICR mice. Cancer Lett 24: 209-212.
13. Burek, J.D., Albee, R.R., Beyer, J.E., Bell, T.J., Carreon, R.M., Morden, D.C., Wade, C.E., Hermann, E.A. and Gorzinski, S.J. 1980, Subchronic toxicity of acrylamide administered to rats in drinking water followed by up to 144 days of recovery. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 4: 157-182.
14. Calleman, C.J. The metabolism and pharmacokinetics of acrylamide: implications for mechanisms of toxicity and human risk estimation. Drug Met. Rev. 28: 527-590.
15. Cavanagh, J.B. 1964, The significance of the "dying-back" process in experimental and human neurological disease. Int. Rev. Exp. Pathol. 3: 219-267.
16. Cavanagh, J.B. 1979, The dying back process. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 103: 659-664.
17. Cavanagh, J.B. 1982, The pathokinetics of acrylamide intoxication: a reassessment of the problem. Neuropath Appl Neurobiol 8: 315-336.
18. Cavins, J.F. and Friedman, M. 1968, Specific modification of protein sulfhydryl groups with α,β-unsaturated compounds. J. Biol. Chem. 243: 3357-3360.
19. Chapman, E.R., An, S., Barton, N. and Jahn, R. 1994, SNAP-25, a t-SNARE which binds to both syntaxin and synaptobrevin via domains that may form coiled coils. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 27427-27432.
20. Chretien, M., Patey, G., Souyri, F. and Droz, B. 1981, Acrylamide-induced neuropathy and impairment of axonal transport of proteins. II. Abnormal accumulations of smooth endoplasmic reticulum as sites of focal retention of fast transported proteins. Electron microscope radioautographic study. Brain Res. 205: 15-28.
21. Costa, L.G., Deng, H., Gregotti, C., Manzo, L., Faustman, E.M., Bergmark, E. and Calleman C.J. 1992, Comparative studies on the neuro- and reproductive toxicity of acrylamide and its epoxide metabolite glycidamide in the rat. NeuroToxicology 13: 219-224.
22. Costa, L.G., Deng, H., Calleman, C.J. and Bergmark, E. 1995, Evaluation of the neurotoxicity of glycidamide, an epoxide metabolite of acrylamide: behavioral, neurochemical and morphological studies. Toxicology 98: 151-161.
23. Crofton, K.M., Padilla, S., Tilson, H.A., Anthony, D.C., Raymer, J.H. and MacPhail, R.C. 1996, The impact of dose rate on the neurotoxicity of acrylamide: The interaction of administered dose, target tissue concentrations, tissue damage, and functional effects. Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. 139: 163-176.
24. DeGrandchamp, R.L. and Lowndes, H.E. 1990, Early degeneration and sprouting at the rat neuromuscular junction following acrylamide administration. Neuropath. Appl. Neurobiol. 16: 239-254.
25. DeGrandchamp, R.L., Reuhl, K.R. and Lowndes, H.E. 1990, Synaptic terminal degeneration and remodeling at the rat neuromuscular junction resulting from a single exposure to acrylamide. Tox Appl Pharmacol 105: 422-433.
26. De Rojas, T.C, and Goldstein, B.D. 1987, Primary afferent terminal function following acrylamide: alterations in the dorsal root potential and reflex. Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. 88: 175-182.
27. Deng, H., He, S. and Zhang, S. 1993, Quantitative measurements of vibration threshold in healthy adults and acrylamide workers. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 65: 53-56.
28. Dixit, R., Sas, M., Seth, P.K. and Mukhtar, H. 1986, Interaction of acrylamide with bovine serum albumin. Environ. Res. 40: 365-371.
29. Dschida, W.J.A, and Bowman, B.J. 1995, The vacuolar ATPase: sulfite stabilization and the mechanism of nitrate inactivation. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 1557-1563.
30. Edwards, P.M. 1975, The distribution and metabolism of acrylamide and its neurotoxic analogues in rats. Biochem. Pharmacol.. 24: 1277-1282.
31. Edwards, P.M. and Parker, V.H. 1977, A simple, sensitive and objective method for early assessment of acrylamide neuropathy in rats. Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. 40: 589-591.
32. Erecinska, M. and Nelson, D. 1994, Effects of 3-nitropropionic acid on synaptosomal energy and transmitter metabolism: relevance to neurodegenerative brain diseases. J. Neurochem. 63: 1033-1041.
33. Friedman, M.A., Dulak, L.H. and Stedham, M.A. 1995, A lifetime oncogenicity study in rats with acrylamide. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 27: 95-105.
34. Friedman, M., 1973, Nucleophilic additions. In: The Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Sulfhydryl Group in Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins, Chapter 4. New York: Pergamon Press; 1973. pp. 88-134.
35. Garland, T.O. and Patterson M. 1967, Six cases of acrylamide poisoning. Brit Med J 4: 134-138.
36. Gilbert, H.F. 1982, Biological disulfides: the third messenger? J. Biol. Chem. 257: 12086-12091.
37. Ghetti, B., Wisneiwski, H.M., Cook, R.D. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1973, Changes in the CNS after acute and chronic acrylamide intoxication. Am. J. Pathol. 70: 78A.
38. Goldstein, B.D. and Lowndes, H.E. 1979, Spinal cord defect in the peripheral neuropathy resulting from acrylamide. NeuroToxicology 1: 75-87.
39. Goldstein, B.D. and Lowndes, H.E. 1981, Group Ia primary afferent terminal defect in cats with acrylamide neuropathy. NeuroToxicology 2: 297-312.
40. Hashimoto, K. and Aldridge, W.N. 1970, Biochemical studies on acrylamide, a neurotoxic agent. Biochem Pharmacol 19, 2591-2604.
41. He, F., Zhang, S. and Wang, H. 1989, Neurological and electroneuromyographic assessment of the adverse effects of acrylamide on occupationally exposed workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 15: 125-129.
42. Hinson, J.A. and Roberts, D.W. 1992, Role of covalent and noncovalent interactions in cell toxicity: effects on proteins. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 32: 471-510.
43. Jahn, R. and Sudhof, T.C. 1999, Membrane fusion and exocytosis. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 68: 863-911.
44. Jennekens, F.G.I., Veldman, H., Schotman, P. and Gispen, W.H. 1979, Sequence of motor nerve terminal involvement in acrylamide neuropathy. Acta Neuropath 46: 57-63.
45. Johnson, K.A., Gorzinski, S.J., Bodner, K.M., Campbell, R.A., Wolf, C.H., Friedman, M.A. and Mast, R.W. 1986, Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity study on acrylamide incorporated in the drinking water of Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 85: 154-168.
46. Kemplay, S, and Cavanagh, J.B. 1984a, Effects of acrylamide and other sulfhydryl compound in vivo and in vitro on staining of motor nerve terminals by the zinc iodide-osmium technique. Musc Nerve 7: 94-100.
47. Kemplay, S. and Cavanagh, J.B. 1984b, Effects of acrylamide and some other sulfhydryl reagents on spontaneous and pathologically induced terminal sprouting from motor end-plates. Musc Nerve 7: 101-109.
48. Kuperman, A.S. 1958, Effects of acrylamide on the central nervous system of the cat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 123: 180-192.
49. Lasek, R.J., Garner, J.A. and Brady, S.T. 1984, Axonal transport of the cytoplasmic matrix. J Cell Biol 99: 212-221.
50. Lehning, E.J., LoPachin, R.M., Matthew, J. and Eichberg, J. 1994, Changes in Na-K ATPase and protein kinase C activities in peripheral nerve of acrylamide-treated rats. J. Tox. Environ. Health 42: 331-342.
51. Lehning, E.J., Gaughan, C.L. and LoPachin, R.M. 1997, Acrylamide intoxication modifies in vitro responses of peripheral nerve axonal to anoxia. J Periph Nerv Sys 2: 165-174.
52. Lehning, E.J., Persaud, A., Dyer, K.R., Jortner, B.S. and LoPachin, R.M. 1998, Biochemical and Morphologic characterization of acrylamide peripheral neuropathy. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 151:211-221.
53. Lehning, E.J., Balaban, C.D., Ross, J.F., Reid, M.L and LoPachin, R.M. 2002a, Acrylamide neuropathy. I. Spatiotemporal characteristics of nerve cell damage in rat cerebellum. NeuroToxicology 23: 397-414.
54. Lehning, E.J., Balaban, C.D., Ross, J.F. and LoPachin, R.M. 2002b, Acrylamide neuropathy. II. Spatiotemporal characteristics of nerve cell damage in rat brainstem and spinal cord. NeuroToxicology 23: 415-429.
55. Lehning, E.J., Balaban, C.D., Ross, J.F. and LoPachin, R.M. 2003, Acrylamide neuropathy. III. Spatiotemporal characteristics of nerve cell damage in rat forebrain. NeuroToxicology 24: 124-136.
56. Lin, R.C. and Scheller, R.H. 2000, Mechanisms of synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 16: 19-49.
57. Lipton, S.A., Choi, Y.B., Pan, Z.H., Lei, S.Z., Chen, H.S.V., Sucher, N.J., Loscalzo, J., Singel, D.J. and Stamier, J.S. 1993, A redox-based mechanism for the neuroprotective and neurodestructive effects of nitric oxide and related nitroso-compounds. Nature 364: 626-631.
58. Littleton, J.T., Chapman, E.R., Kreber, R., Garment, M.B., Carlson, S.D. and Ganetzky, B. 1998, Temperature-sensitive paralytic mutations demonstrate that synaptic exocytosis requires SNARE complex assembly and disassembly. Neuron 21: 401-413.
59. Lombet, A., Laduron, P., Mourre, C., Jacomet, Y. and Lazdunski, M. 1986, Axonal transport of Na, K-ATPase identified as an ouabain binding site in rat sciatic nerve. Neurosci Letts 64: 177-183.
60. LoPachin, R.M., Moore, R.W., Menahan, L.A. and Peterson, R.E. 1984, Glucose-dependent lactate production by homogenates of neuronal tissues prepared from rats treated with 2,4-dithiobiuret, acrylamide, p-bromophenylacetylurea and 2,5-hexanedione, Neuro Toxicology 5: 25-36.
61. LoPachin, R.M. and Lehning, E.J. 1994, Acrylamide-induced distal axon degeneration: A proposed mechanism of action. NeuroToxicology 15: 247-260.
62. LoPachin, R.M., Lehning, E.J., Opanashuk, L.A. and Jortner, B.S. 2000, Rate of neurotoxicant exposure determines morphologic manifestations of distal axonopathy. Tox Appl Pharmacol 167: 75-86.
63. LoPachin, R.M., Ross, J.F. and Lehning, E.J. 2002a, Nerve terminals as the primary site of acrylamide action. NeuroToxicology 23: 43-59.
64. LoPachin, R.M., Ross, J.F., Reid, M.L., Dasgupta, S., Mansukhani, S. and Lehning, E.J. 2002b, Neurological evaluation of toxic axonopathies in rats: acrylamide and 2,5-hexanedione. NeuroToxicology 23: 95-110.
65. LoPachin, R.M., Balaban, C.D. and Ross, J.F. 2003, Acrylamide axonopathy revisited. Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. 188:135-153.
66. LoPachin, R.M., Schwarcz, A.I., Gaughan, C.L., Mansukhani, S. and Das, S. 2004, In vivo and in vitro effects of acrylamide on synaptosomal neurotransmitter uptake and release. NeuroToxicology 25: 349-363.
67. Lowndes, H.E. and Baker, T. 1976, Studies on drug-induced neuropathies. III. Motor nerve deficit in cats with experimental acrylamide neuropathy. Europ. J. Pharmacol. 35: 177-184.
68. Lowndes, H.E., Baker, T., Michelson, L.P. and Vincent-Ablazey, M. 1978a, Attenuated dynamic responses of primary endings of muscle spindles: A basis for depressed tendon responses in acrylamide neuropathy. Ann. Neurol. 3: 433-437.
69. Lowndes, H.E., Baker, T., Cho, E.-S. and Jortner, B.S. 1978b, Position sensitivity of de-efferented muscle spindles in experimental acrylamide neuropathy. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 205: 40-48.
70. Malhotra, V., Orci, L., Glick, B.S., Block, M.R. and Rothman, J.E. 1988, Role of an N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive transport component in promoting fusion of transport vesicles with cisternae of the Golgi stack. Cell 54: 221-227.
71. Mastrogiacomo, A. and Gundersen, C.B. 1995, The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence of a rat cysteine string protein. Mole. Brain Res. 28: 12-18.
72. Mata, M., Datta, S., Jin, C.F. and Fink, D.J. 1993, Differential axonal transport of individual Na,K-ATPase catalytic (a) subunit isoforms in rat sciatic nerve. Brain Res. 618: 295-298.
73. Medrano, C.J. and LoPachin, R.M. 1989, Effects of acrylamide and 2,5-hexanedione on brain mitochondrial respiration. NeuroToxicology 10: 249-256.
74. Miller, M.S., Carter, D.E. and Sipes, I.G. 1982, Pharmacokinetics of acrylamide in Fisher-334 rats. Tox Appl Pharmacol 63: 36-44.
75. Moser, V.C., Anthony, D.C., Sette, W.F. and MacPhail, R.C. 1992, Comparison of subchronic neurotoxicity of 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate and acrylamide in rats. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 18: 343-352.
76. Munch, G., Lincoln, J., Maynard, K.I., Belai, A. and Bumstock, G. 1994, Effects of acrylamide on transmission in perivascular sympathetic and sensory nerves. J. Auton. Nerv. Sys. 49: 197-205.
77. Nichols, B.J. and Pelham, H.R.B. 1998, SNAREs and membrane fusion in the Golgi apparatus. Biochen. Biophys. Acta 1404: 9-31.
78. Pan, Z.H., Bahring, R., Grantyn, R. and Lipton, S.A. 1995, Differential modulation by sulfhydryl redox agents and glutathione of GABA- and glycine-evoked currents in rat retinal ganglion cells. J. Neurosci. 15: 1384-1391.
79. Prineas, J. 1969, The pathogenesis of dying-back polyneuropathies. Part II. An ultrastructural study of experimental acrylamide intoxication in the cat. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 28: 598-621.
80. Rosen, J. and Hellenes, K.E. 2002, Analysis of acrylamide in cooked foods by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. The Analyst 127: 880-882.
81. Rothman, J.E. 1994, Mechanisms of intracellular protein transport. Nature 372: 55-63.
82. Sabri, M.I. and Spencer, P.S. 1980, Toxic distal axonopathy: biochemical studies and hypothetical mechanisms. In: Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH, editors. Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, p. 206-219.
83. Sanders, R.A., Zyzak, D.V., Stojanovic, M., Tallmadge, D.H., Eberhart, B.L. and Ewald, D.K. 2002, An LC/MS acrylamide method and it's use in investigating the role of asparagine. Presented at the Annual Meeting of AOAC International, September 26.
84. Schaumburg, H.H., Wisniewski, H.M. and Spencer, P.S. 1974, Ultrastructural studies of the dying-back process. I. Peripheral nerve terminal and axon degeneration in systemic acrylamide intoxication. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 33: 260-284.
85. Sega, G.A., Valdivia, Alcota, R.P., Tancongco, C.P. and Brimer, P. 1989, Acrylamide binding to the DNA and protamine of spermiogenic stages in the mouse and its relationship to genetic damage. Mutat. Res. 216: 221-230.
86. Shell, L., Rozum, M., Jortner, B.S. and Ehrich, M. 1992, Neurotoxicity of acrylamide and 2,5-hexanedione in rats evaluated using a functional observational battery and pathological examination. Neurotox. Teratol. 14: 273-283.
87. Sickles, D.W., Fowler, S.R. and Testino, A.R. 1990, Effects of neurofilamentous axonopathy-producing neurotoxicants on in vitro production of ATP by brain mitochondria. Brain Res. 528: 25-31.
88. Sickles, D.W., Stone, J.D. and Friedman, M.A. 2002, Fast axonal transport: a site of acrylamide neurotoxicity. NeuroToxicology 23: 223-251.
89. Spencer, P.S. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1974a, A review of acrylamide neurotoxicity. Part I. Properties, uses and human exposure. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 1: 151-169.
90. Spencer, P.S. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1974b, A review of acrylamide neurotoxicity. Part II. Experimental animal neurotoxicity and pathologic mechanisms. Can J Neurol Sci 1: 170-192.
91. Spencer, P.S. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1976, Central-peripheral distal axonopathy- The pathology of dying-back polyneuropathies. In: Progress in Neuropathology. Zimmerman H., ed., New York, Grune & Stratton, 3: 253-276.
92. Spencer, P.S. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1977a, Ultrastructural studies of the dying-back process. III. The evolution of experimental peripheral giant axonal degeneration. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 36: 276-299.
93. Spencer, P.S. and Schaumburg, H.H. 1977b, Ultrastructural studies of the dying-back process. IV. Differential vulnerability of PNS and CNS fibers in experimental central-peripheral distal axonopathy. J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol. 36: 300-320.
94. Sumner, S., Fennell, T., Moore, T.A., Chanas, B., Gonzalez, F. and Ghanayem, B.I. 1999, Role of cytochrome P450 2E1 in the metabolism of acrylamide and acrylonitrile in mice. Chem Res Toxicol 12: 1110-1116.
95. Suzuki, K. and Pfaff, L. 1973, Acrylamide neuropathy in rats. An electron microscopic study of degeneration and regeneration. Acta Neuropathol. 24: 197-203.
96. Tagaya, M., Wilson, D.W., Brunner, M., Arango, N. and Rothman, J.E. 1993, Domain structure of an N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein involved in vesicular transport. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 2662-2666.
97. Tareke, E., Rydberg, P., Karlsson, P., Eriksson, S. and Tornqvist, M. 2000, Acrylamide: A cooking carcinogen? Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13: 517-522.
98. Tareke, E., Rydberg, P., Karlsson, P., Eriksson, S. and Tornqvist, M. 2002, Analysis of acrylamide, a carcinogen formed in heated foodstuffs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50: 4998-5006.
99. Tilson, H.A. and Cabe, P.A. 1979, The effects of acrylamide given acutely or in repeated doses on fore- and hindlimb function of rats. Tox. Appl. Pharmacol. 47; 253-260.
100. Tolar, L.A. and Pallanck, L. 1998, NSF function in neurotransmitter release involves rearrangement of the SNARE complex downstream of synaptic vesicle docking. J. Neurosci. 18: 10250-10256.
101. Tsujihata, M., Engel, A.G. and Lambert, E.H. 1974, Motor end-plate fine structure in acrylamide dying-back neuropathy: A sequential morphometric study. Neurology 24: 849-856.
102. Tyl, R.W., Marr, M.C., Myers, C.B., Ross, W.P. and Friedman, M.A. 2000a, Relationship between acrylamide reproductive and neurotoxicity in male rats. Reprod Toxicol 14: 147-157.
103. Whiteheart, S.W., Rossnagel, K., Buhrow, S.A., Brunner, M., Jaenicke, R. and Rothman, J.E. 1994, N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein: a trimeric ATPase whose hydrolysis of ATP is required for membrane fusion. J. Cell Biol. 126: 945-954.
104. Working, P., Bentley, K., Hurtt, M. and Mohr, K. 1987, Comparison of the dominant lethal effects of acrylonitrile and acrylamide in male Fischer 344 rats. Mutagenesis 2: 215-220.