The expanding realm of heterologous immunity: Friend or foe?

Cellular Microbiology

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 185-196

  Page, Kathleen R ^a   Scott, Alan L ^b   Manabe, Yukari C ^a,b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ANTHELMINTIC AGENT; BCG VACCINE; CD4 ANTIGEN; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR4; DIPHTHERIA PERTUSSIS TETANUS VACCINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G ANTIBODY; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 12; INTERLEUKIN 13; INTERLEUKIN 1ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 2 RECEPTOR ALPHA; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 5; MEASLES VACCINE; PATTERN RECOGNITION RECEPTOR; TETANUS TOXOID; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 9; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR FOXP3; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VIRUS ANTIGEN;

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELL; ANTIGEN RECOGNITION; BACTERIAL IMMUNITY; BCG VACCINATION; BRAIN MALARIA; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CROSS REACTION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DRUG EFFICACY; HELICOBACTER FELIS; HELMINTHIASIS; HEPATITIS C; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HOST SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOREGULATION; INFECTION RISK; INNATE IMMUNITY; LYMPHOCYTE FUNCTION; LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS VIRUS; MEASLES; MEMORY T LYMPHOCYTE; MICROBIAL IMMUNITY; MYCOBACTERIOSIS; NONHUMAN; ONCHOCERCIASIS; PARASITE IMMUNITY; PICHINDE ARENAVIRUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RISK FACTOR; SHORT SURVEY; T LYMPHOCYTE; TOXOPLASMOSIS; VACCINIA VIRUS; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS MENINGITIS;

ANIMALS; CROSS REACTIONS; EPITOPES, T-LYMPHOCYTE; HUMANS; IMMUNITY, NATURAL; IMMUNOLOGIC MEMORY; INFECTION; PARASITIC DISEASES; T-LYMPHOCYTES; VIRUS DISEASES;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); HELICOBACTER FELIS; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS VIRUS; PICHINDE VIRUS; VACCINIA VIRUS;

EID: 33644825818     PISSN: 14625814     EISSN: 14625822     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00653.x     Document Type: Short Survey

References (106)

1. Aalto, S. M., Linnavuori, K., Peltola, H., Vuori, E., Weissbrich, B., Schubert, J., et al. (1998) Immunoreactivation of Epstein-Barr virus due to cytomegalovirus primary infection. J Med Virol 56: 186-191.
2. Adams, A. B., Williams, M. A., Jones, T. R., Shirasugi, N., Durham, M. M., Kaech, S. M., et al. (2003) Heterologous immunity provides a potent barrier to transplantation tolerance. J Clin Invest 111: 1887-1895.
3. Angelico, M., Renganathan, E., Gandin, C., Fathy, M., Profili, M. C., Refai, W., et al. (1997) Chronic liver disease in the Alexandria governorate, Egypt: Contribution of schistosomiasis and hepatitis virus infections. J Hepatol 26: 236-243.
4. Bafica, A., Scanga, C. A., Schito, M. L., Hieny, S., Sher, A. (2003) Cutting edge: In vivo induction of integrated HIV-1 expression by mycobacteria is critically dependent on Toll-like receptor 2. J Immunol 171: 1123-1127.
5. Bafica, A., Scanga, C. A., Schito, M., Chaussabel, D., Sher, A. (2004) Influence of coinfecting pathogens on HIV expression: Evidence for a role of Toll-like receptors. J Immunol 172: 7229-7234.
6. Bazaz-Malik, G. (1973) Increased resistance to malaria after Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Indian J Med Res 61: 1014-1024.
7. Belkaid, Y., Rouse, B. T. (2005) Natural regulatory T cells in infectious disease. Nat Immunol 6: 353-360.
8. Belkaid, Y., Piccirillo, C. A., Mendez, S., Shevach, E. M., Sacks, D. L. (2002) CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells control Leishmania major persistence and immunity. Nature 420: 502-507.
9. Bernier, R., Turco, S. J., Olivier, M., Tremblay, M. (1995) Activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in monocytoid cells by the protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani. J Virol 69: 7282-7285.
10. Bernier, R., Barbeau, B., Tremblay, M. J., Olivier, M. (1998a) The lipophosphoglycan of Leishmania donovani up-regulates HIV-1 transcription in T cells through the nuclear factor-kappaB elements. J Immunol 160: 2881-2888.
11. Bernier, R., Barbeau, B., Olivier, M., Tremblay, M. J. (1998b) Mycobacterium tuberculosis mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan can induce NF-kappaB-dependent activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat in T cells. J Gen Virol 79 (Part 6): 1353-1361.
12. van den Biggelaar, A. H., Rodrigues, L. C., van Ree, R., van der Zee, J. S., Hoeksma-Kruize, Y. C., Souverijn, J. H., et al. (2004) Long-term treatment of intestinal helminths increases mite skin-test reactivity in Gabonese schoolchildren. J Infect Dis 189: 892-900.
13. Bluestone, J. A., Abbas, A. K. (2003) Natural versus adaptive regulatory T cells. Nat Rev Immunol 3: 253-257.
14. Boulos, R., Ruff, A. J., Nahmias, A., Holt, E., Harrison, L., Magder, L., et al. (1992) Herpes simplex virus type 2 infection, syphilis, and hepatitis B virus infection in Haitian women with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and human T lymphotropic virus type I infections. The Johns Hopkins University (JHU)/Centre pour le Developpement et la Sante (CDS) HIV Study Group. J Infect Dis 166: 418-420.
15. Brehm, M. A., Pinto, A. K., Daniels, K. A., Schneck, J. P., Welsh, R. M., Selin, L. K. (2002) T cell immunodominance and maintenance of memory regulated by unexpectedly cross-reactive pathogens. Nat Immunol 3: 627-634.
16. Brown, M., Mawa, P. A., Joseph, S., Bukusuba, J., Watera, C., Whitworth, J. A., et al. (2005) Treatment of Schistosoma mansoni infection increases helminth-specific type 2 cytokine responses and HIV-1 loads in coinfected Ugandan adults. J Infect Dis 191: 1648-1657.
17. Burak, K. W., Kremers, W. K., Batts, K. P., Wiesner, R. H., Rosen, C. B., Razonable, R. R., et al. (2002) Impact of cytomegalovirus infection, year of transplantation, and donor age on outcomes after liver transplantation for hepatitis C. Liver Transpl 8: 362-369.
18. Chen, Y., Kuchroo, V. K., Inobe, J., Hafler, D. A., Weiner, H. L. (1994) Regulatory T cell clones induced by oral tolerance: Suppression of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Science 265: 1237-1240.
19. Chen, H. D., Fraire, A. E., Joris, I., Brehm, M. A., Welsh, R. M., Selin, L. K. (2001) Memory CD8+ T cells in heterologous antiviral immunity and immunopathology in the lung. Nat Immunol 2: 1067-1076.
20. Chen, H. D., Fraire, A. E., Joris, I., Welsh, R. M., Selin, L. K. (2003) Specific history of heterologous virus infections determines anti-viral immunity and immunopathology in the lung. Am J Pathol 163: 1341-1355.
21. Clark, I. A., Allison, A. C., Cox, F. E. (1976) Protection of mice against Babesia and Plasmodium with BCG. Nature 259: 309-311.
22. Colwell, D. A., Wescott, R. B. (1973) Prolongation of egg production of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis in mice concurrently infected with Nematospiroides dubius. J Parasitol 59: 216.
23. Cooper,. P. J., Espinel, I., Paredes, W., Guderian, R. H., Nutman, T. B. (1998) Impaired tetanus-specific cellular and humoral responses following tetanus vaccination in human onchocerciasis: A possible role for interleukin-10. J Infect Dis 178: 1133-1138.
24. Corey, L., Wald, A., Celum, C. L., Quinn, T. C. (2004) The effects of herpes simplex virus-2 on HIV-1 acquisition and transmission: A review of two overlapping epidemics. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 35: 435-445.
25. Cunningham, A. L., Turner, R. R., Miller, A. C., Para, M. F., Merigan, T. C. (1985) Evolution of recurrent herpes simplex lesions. An immunohistologic study. J Clin Invest 75: 226-233.
26. Curry, A. J., Else, K. J., Jones, F., Bancroft, A., Grencis, R. K., Dunne, D. W. (1995) Evidence that cytokine-mediated immune interactions induced by Schistosoma mansoni alter disease outcome in mice concurrently infected with Trichuris muris. J Exp Med 181: 769-774.
27. Dye, C., Scheele, S., Dolin, P., Pathania, V., Raviglione, M. C. (1999) Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: Estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. JAMA 282: 677-686.
28. Elias, D., Wolday, D., Akuffo, H., Petros, B., Bronner, U., Britton, S. (2001) Effect of deworming on human T cell responses to mycobacterial antigens in helminth-exposed individuals before and after bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination. Clin Exp Immunol 123: 219-225.
29. Equils, O., Schito, M. L., Karahashi, H., Madak, Z., Yarali, A., Michelsen, K. S., et al. (2003) Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR9 signaling results in HIV-long terminal repeat trans -activation and HIV replication in HIV-1 transgenic mouse spleen cells: Implications of simultaneous activation of TLRs on HIV replication. J Immunol 170: 5159-5164.
30. Evans, C. F., Horwitz, M. S., Hobbs, M. V., Oldstone, M. B. (1996) Viral infection of transgenic mice expressing a viral protein in oligodendrocytes leads to chronic central nervous system autoimmune disease. J Exp Med 184: 2371-2384.
31. Fearon, D. T., Locksley, R. M. (1996) The instructive role of innate immunity in the acquired immune response. Science 272: 50-53.
32. Ferreira, A. P., Aguiar, A. S., Fava, M. W., Correa, J. O., Teixeira, F. M., Teixeira, H. C. (2002) Can the efficacy of bacille Calmette-Guerin tuberculosis vaccine be affected by intestinal parasitic infections? J Infect Dis 186: 441-442; author reply 442-443.
33. Fincham, J. E., Markus, M. B., Adams, V. J. (2003) Could control of soil-transmitted helminthic infection influence the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Acta Trop 86: 315-333.
34. Fine, P. E. (1995) Variation in protection by BCG: Implications of and for heterologous immunity. Lancet 346: 1339-1345.
35. Flamand, L., Stefanescu, I., Ablashi, D. V., Menezes, J. (1993) Activation of the Epstein-Barr virus replicative cycle by human herpesvirus 6. J Virol 67: 6768-6777.
36. Fontenot, J. D., Rudensky, A. Y. (2005) A well adapted regulatory contrivance: Regulatory T cell development and the forkhead family transcription factor Foxp3. Nat Immunol 6: 331-337.
37. Fox, J. G., Beck, P., Dangler, C. A., Whary, M. T., Wang, T. C., Shi, H. N., Nagler-Anderson, C. (2000) Concurrent enteric helminth infection modulates inflammation and gastric immune responses and reduces Helicobacter -induced gastric atrophy. Nat Med 6: 536-542.
38. Garly, M. L., Martins, C. L., Bale, C., Balde, M. A., Hedegaard, K. L., Gustafson, P., et al. (2003) BCG scar and positive tuberculin reaction associated with reduced child mortality in West Africa. A non-specific beneficial effect of BCG? Vaccine 21: 2782-2790.
39. Goletti,. D., Weissman, D., Jackson, R. W., Graham, N. M., Vlahov, D., Klein, R. S., et al. (1996) Effect of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on HIV replication. Role of immune activation. J Immunol 157: 1271-1278.
40. Gomez-Gonzalo, M., Carretero, M., Rullas, J., Lara-Pezzi, E., Aramburu, J., Berkhout, B., et al. (2001) The hepatitis B virus X protein induces HIV-1 replication and transcription in synergy with T-cell activation signals: Functional roles of NF-kappaB/NF-AT and SP1-binding sites in the HIV-1 long terminal repeat promoter. J Biol Chem 276: 35435-35443.
41. Graham, A. L., Lamb, T. J., Read, A. F., Allen, J. E. (2005) Malaria-filaria coinfection in mice makes malarial disease more severe unless filarial infection achieves patency. J Infect Dis 191: 410-421.
42. Guidotti, L. G., Borrow, P., Hobbs, M. V., Matzke, B., Gresser, I., Oldstone, M. B., Chisari, F. V. (1996) Viral cross talk: Intracellular inactivation of the hepatitis B virus during an unrelated viral infection of the liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 4589-4594.
43. Guzman, M. G., Kouri, G., Valdes, L., Bravo, J., Alvarez, M., Vazques, S., et al. (2000) Epidemiologic studies on Dengue in Santiago de Cuba, 1997. Am J Epidemiol 152: 793-799; discussion 804.
44. Heng, M. C., Heng, S. Y., Allen, S. G. (1994) Co-infection and synergy of human immunodeficiency virus-1 and herpes simplex virus-1. Lancet 343: 255-258.
45. Hisaeda, H., Maekawa, Y., Iwakawa, D., Okada, H., Himeno, K., Kishihara, K., et al. (2004) Escape of malaria parasites from host immunity requires CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells. Nat Med 10: 29-30.
46. Hook, E. W., III, Cannon, R. O., Nahmias, A. J., Lee, F. F., Campbell, C. H., Jr, Glasser, D., Quinn, T. C. (1992) Herpes simplex virus infection as a risk factor for human immunodeficiency virus infection in heterosexuals. J Infect Dis 165: 251-255.
47. Hoshino, Y., Tse, D. B., Rochford, G., Prabhakar, S., Hoshino, S., Chitkara, N., et al. (2004) Mycobacterium tuberculosis -induced CXCR4 and chemokine expression leads to preferential X4 HIV-1 replication in human macrophages. J Immunol 172: 6251-6258.
48. Iwashiro, M., Messer, R. J., Peterson, K. E., Stromnes, I. M., Sugie, T., Hasenkrug, K. J. (2001) Immunosuppression by CD4+ regulatory T cells induced by chronic retroviral infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 9226-9230.
49. de Jong, E. C., Vieira, P. L., Kalinski, P., Schuitemaker, J. H., Tanaka, Y., Wierenga, E. A., et al. (2002) Microbial compounds selectively induce Th1 cell-promoting or Th2 cell-promoting dendritic cells in vitro with diverse th cell-polarizing signals. J Immunol 168: 1704-1709.
50. Kamal, S., Madwar, M., Bianchi, L., Tawil, A. E., Fawzy, R., Peters, T., Rasenack, J. W. (2000) Clinical, virological and histopathological features: Long-term follow-up in patients with chronic hepatitis C co-infected with S. mansoni. Liver 20: 281-289.
51. Kamal, S. M., Bianchi, L., Al Tawil, A., Koziel, M., El Sayed Khalifa, K., Peter, T., Rasenack, J. W. (2001a) Specific cellular immune response and cytokine patterns in patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus and Schistosoma mansoni. J Infect Dis 184: 972-982.
52. Kamal, S. M., Rasenack, J. W., Bianchi, L., Al Tawil, A., El Sayed Khalifa, K., Peter, T., et al. (2001b) Acute hepatitis C without and with schistosomiasis: Correlation with hepatitis C-specific CD4(+) T-cell and cytokine response. Gastroenterology 121: 646-656.
53. Kim, S. K., Brehm, M. A., Welsh, R. M., Selin, L. K. (2002) Dynamics of memory T cell proliferation under conditions of heterologous immunity and bystander stimulation. J Immunol 169: 90-98.
54. Kim, S. K., Cornberg, M., Wang, X. Z., Chen, H. D., Selin, L. K., Welsh, R. M. (2005) Private specificities of CD8 T cell responses control patterns of heterologous immunity. J Exp Med 201: 523-533.
55. Kristensen, I., Aaby, P., Jensen, H. (2000) Routine vaccinations and child survival: Follow up study in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. BMJ 321: 1435-1438.
56. Kucera, L. S., Leake, E., Iyer, N., Raben, D., Myrvik, Q. N. (1990) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) can coinfect and simultaneously replicate in the same human CD4+ cell: Effect of coinfection on infectious HSV-2 and HIV-1 replication. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 6: 641-647.
57. Kullberg, M. C., Jankovic, D., Gorelick, P. L., Caspar, P., Letterio, J. J., Cheever, A. W., Sher, A. (2002) Bacteria-triggered CD4(+) T regulatory cells suppress Helicobacter hepaticus -induced colitis. J Exp Med 196: 505-515.
58. Lamb, T. J., Graham, A. L., Le Goff, L., Allen, J. E. (2005) Co-infected C57BL/6 mice mount appropriately polarized and compartmentalized cytokine responses to Litomosoides sigmodontis and Leishmania major but disease progression is altered. Parasite Immunol 27: 317-324.
59. Lynch, N. R., Lopez, R. I., Di Prisco-Fuenmayor, M. C., Hagel, I., Medouze, L., Viana, G., et al. (1987) Allergic reactivity and socio-economic level in a tropical environment. Clin Allergy 17: 199-207.
60. McClelland, R. S., Wang, C. C., Overbaugh, J., Richardson, B. A., Corey, L., Ashley, R. L., et al. (2002) Association between cervical shedding of herpes simplex virus and HIV-1. Aids 16: 2425-2430.
61. McElroy, M. D., Elrefaei, M., Jones, N., Ssali, F., Mugyenyi, P., Barugahare, B., Cao, H. (2005) Coinfection with Schistosoma mansoni is associated with decreased HIV-specific cytolysis and increased IL-10 production. J Immunol 174: 5119-5123.
62. McGuirk, P., McCann, C., Mills, K. H. (2002) Pathogen-specific T regulatory 1 cells induced in the respiratory tract by a bacterial molecule that stimulates interleukin 10 production by dendritic cells: A novel strategy for evasion of protective T helper type 1 responses by Bordetella pertussis. J Exp Med 195: 221-231.
63. McIntire, J. J., Umetsu, S. E., Macaubas, C., Hoyte, E. G., Cinnioglu, C., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., et al. (2003) Immunology: Hepatitis A virus link to atopic disease. Nature 425: 576.
64. Mahanty, S., Nutman, T. B. (1995) Immunoregulation in human lymphatic filariasis: The role of interleukin 10. Parasite Immunol 17: 385-392.
65. Maizels, R. M., Balic, A., Gomez-Escobar, N., Nair, M., Taylor, M. D., Allen, J. E. (2004) Helminth parasites - masters of regulation. Immunol Rev 201: 89-116.
66. Malhotra, I., Mungai, P., Wamachi, A., Kioko, J., Ouma, J. H., Kazura, J. W., King, C. L. (1999) Helminth- and Bacillus Calmette-Guerin-induced immunity in children sensitized in utero to filariasis and schistosomiasis. J Immunol 162: 6843-6848.
67. Mason, D. (1998) A very high level of crossreactivity is an essential feature of the T-cell receptor. Immunol Today 19: 395-404.
68. Mathew, A., Kurane, I., Green, S., Stephens, H. A., Vaughn, D. W., Kalayanarooj, S., et al. (1998) Predominance of HLA-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses to serotype-cross-reactive epitopes on nonstructural proteins following natural secondary dengue virus infection. J Virol 72: 3999-4004.
69. Matricardi, P. M., Rosmini, F., Riondino, S., Fortini, M., Ferrigno, L., Rapicetta, M., Bonini, S. (2000) Exposure to foodborne and orofecal microbes versus airborne viruses in relation to atopy and allergic asthma: Epidemiological study. BMJ 320: 412-417.
70. Mbopi Keou, F. X., Gresenguet, G., Mayaud, P., Weiss, H. A., Gopal, R., Brown, D. W., et al. (1999) Genital herpes simplex virus type 2 shedding is increased in HIV-infected women in Africa. Aids 13: 536-537.
71. Mestas, J., Hughes, C. C. (2004) Of mice and not men: Differences between mouse and human immunology. J Immunol 172: 2731-2738.
72. Mongkolsapaya, J., Dejnirattisai, W., Xu, X. N., Vasanawathana, S., Tangthawornchaikul, N., Chairunsri, A., et al. (2003) Original antigenic sin and apoptosis in the pathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Nat Med 9: 921-927.
73. Moriuchi, M., Moriuchi, H., Williams, R., Straus, S. E. (2000) Herpes simplex virus infection induces replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology 278: 534-540.
74. Mosca, J. D., Bednarik, D. P., Raj, N. B., Rosen, C. A., Sodroski, J. G., Haseltine, W. A., Pitha, P. M. (1987) Herpes simplex virus type-1 can reactivate transcription of latent human immunodeficiency virus. Nature 325: 67-70.
75. Noland, G., Graczyk, T., Fried, B., Fitzgerald, E., Kumar, N. (2005) Exacerbation of Plasmodium yoelii malaria in Echinostoma caproni -infected mice and abatement through anthelmintic treatment. J Parasitol 91: 944-948.
76. Nookala, S., Srinivasan, S., Kaliraj, P., Narayanan, R. B., Nutman, T. B. (2004) Impairment of tetanus-specific cellular and humoral responses following tetanus vaccination in human lymphatic filariasis. Infect Immun 72: 2598-2604.
77. O'Garra, A., Vieira, P. (2004) Regulatory T cells and mechanisms of immune system control. Nat Med 10: 801-805.
78. Page, K., Jedlicka, A., Fakheri, B., Noland, G., Kesavan, A., Scott, A., et al. (2005) Mycobacterial-induced potentiation of type 1 immune responses and protection against malaria is host-specific. Infect Immun (in press).
79. Palmer, C. E., Long, M. W. (1966) Effects of infection with atypical mycobacteria on BCG vaccination and tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 94: 553-568.
80. Pasquetto, V., Guidotti, L. G., Kakimi, K., Tsuji, M., Chisari, F. V. (2000) Host-virus interactions during malaria infection in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. J Exp Med 192: 529-536.
81. Perneger, T. V., Sudre, P., Lundgren, J. D., Hirschel, B. (1995) Does the onset of tuberculosis in AIDS predict shorter survival? Results of a cohort study in 17 European countries over 13 years. AIDS in Europe Study Group. BMJ 311: 1468-1471.
82. Rehermann, B., Shin, E. C. (2005) Private aspects of heterologous immunity. J Exp Med 201: 667-670.
83. Roth, A., Gustafson, P., Nhaga, A., Djana, Q., Poulsen, A., Garly, M. L., et al. (2005) BCG vaccination scar associated with better childhood survival in Guinea-Bissau. Int J Epidemiol 34: 540-547.
84. Roulston, A., Lin, R., Beauparlant, P., Wainberg, M. A., Hiscott, J. (1995) Regulation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and cytokine gene expression in myeloid cells by NF-kappa B/Rel transcription factors. Microbiol Rev 59: 481-505.
85. Sangkawibha, N., Rojanasuphot, S., Ahandrik, S., Viriyapongse, S., Jatanasen, S., Salitul, V., et al. (1984) Risk factors in dengue shock syndrome: A prospective epidemiologic study in Rayong, Thailand. I. The 1980 outbreak. Am J Epidemiol 120: 653-669.
86. Schnare, M., Barton, G. M., Holt, A. C., Takeda, K., Akira, S., Medzhitov, R. (2001) Toll-like receptors control activation of adaptive immune responses. Nat Immunol 2: 947-950.
87. Scott, C. P., Kumar, N., Bishai, W. R., Manabe, Y. C. (2004) Short report: Modulation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by Plasmodium in the murine model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 144-148.
88. Selin, L. K., Varga, S. M., Wong, I. C., Welsh, R. M. (1998) Protective heterologous antiviral immunity and enhanced immunopathogenesis mediated by memory T cell populations. J Exp Med 188: 1705-1715.
89. Shaheen, S. O., Aaby, P., Hall, A. J., Barker, D. J., Heyes, C. B., Shiell, A. W., Goudiaby, A. (1996) Measles and atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Lancet 347: 1792-1796.
90. Shann, F. (2004) Heterologous immunity and the nonspecific effects of vaccines: A major medical advance? Pediatr Infect Dis J 23: 555-558.
91. Shirakawa, T., Enomoto, T., Shimazu, S., Hopkin, J. M. (1997) The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 275: 77-79.
92. Singh, N. (2005) Interactions between viruses in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 40: 430-436.
93. Singh, N., Husain, S., Carrigan, D. R., Knox, K. K., Weck, K. E., Wagener, M. M., Gayowski, T. (2002) Impact of human herpesvirus-6 on the frequency and severity of recurrent hepatitis C virus hepatitis in liver transplant recipients. Clin Transplant 16: 92-96.
94. Stoicov, C., Whary, M., Rogers, A. B., Lee, F. S., Klucevsek, K., Li, H., et al. (2004) Coinfection modulates inflammatory responses and clinical outcome of Helicobacter felis and Toxoplasma gondii infections. J Immunol 173: 3329-3336.
95. Strachan, D. P. (1989) Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 299: 1259-1260.
96. Telford, G., Wheeler, D. J., Appleby, P., Bowen, J. G., Pritchard, D. I. (1998) Heligmosomoides polygyrus immunomodulatory factor (IMF), targets T-lymphocytes. Parasite Immunol 20: 601-611.
97. Toossi, Z., Sierra-Madero, J. G., Blinkhorn, R. A., Mettler, M. A., Rich, E. A. (1993) Enhanced susceptibility of blood monocytes from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis to productive infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Exp Med 177: 1511-1516.
98. Urbani, S., Amadei, B., Fisicaro, P., Pilli, M., Missale, G., Bertoletti, A., Ferrari, C. (2005) Heterologous T cell immunity in severe hepatitis C virus infection. J Exp Med 201: 675-680.
99. Walzl, G., Humphreys, I. R., Marshall, B. G., Edwards, L., Openshaw, P. J., Shaw, R. J., Hussell, T. (2003) Prior exposure to live Mycobacterium bovis BCG decreases Cryptococcus neoformans -induced lung eosinophilia in a gamma interferon-dependent manner. Infect Immun 71: 3384-3391.
100. Wedemeyer, H., Mizukoshi, E., Davis, A. R., Bennink, J. R., Rehermann, B. (2001) Cross-reactivity between hepatitis C virus and Influenza A virus determinant-specific cytotoxic T cells. J Virol 75: 11392-11400.
101. Welsh, R. M., Selin, L. K. (2002) No one is naive: The significance of heterologous T-cell immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2: 417-426.
102. Whalen, C., Horsburgh, C. R., Hom, D., Lahart, C., Simberkoff, M., Ellner, J. (1995) Accelerated course of human immunodeficiency virus infection after tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151: 129-135.
103. Williams, A. E., Edwards, L., Humphreys, I. R., Snelgrove, R., Rae, A., Rappuoli, R., Hussell, T. (2004) Innate imprinting by the modified heat-labile toxin of Escherichia coli (LTK63) provides generic protection against lung infectious disease. J Immunol 173: 7435-7443.
104. Yan, Y., Inuo, G., Akao, N., Tsukidate, S., Fujita, K. (1997) Down-regulation of murine susceptibility to cerebral malaria by inoculation with third-stage larvae of the filarial nematode Brugia pahangi. Parasitology 114 (Part 4): 333-338.
105. Yazdanbakhsh, M., Kremsner, P. G., van Ree, R. (2002) Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis. Science 296: 490-494.
106. Zhao, C., Papadopoulou, B., Tremblay, M. J. (2004) Leishmania infantum promotes replication of HIV type 1 in human lymphoid tissue cultured ex vivo by inducing secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-1 alpha. J Immunol 172: 3086-3093.