SARS: Clinical presentation, transmission, pathogenesis and treatment options

Clinical Science

Volumn 110, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 193-204

  Chan, Paul K S ^a,b,c   Tang, Julian W ^a   Hui, David S C ^a,b  

^a and Hong Kong Branch of CAS Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics   (Hong Kong)

^b CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^c CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Coronavirus; Inflammation; Respiratory infection; Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS); Viral transmission

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA INTERFERON; BETA1A INTERFERON; CORTICOSTEROID; HUMAN MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; NELFINAVIR; NITRIC OXIDE; OSELTAMIVIR; PEGINTERFERON; PREDNISOLONE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RIBAVIRIN; VIRUS VACCINE;

CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; DRUG PULSE THERAPY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EPIDEMIC; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT CARE; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; REVIEW; SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

CHINA; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CONTROL; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, EMERGING; HUMANS; SARS VIRUS; SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 32644433525     PISSN: 01435221     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1042/CS20050188     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Zhao, Z., Zhang, F., Xu, M. et al. (2003) Description and clinical treatment of an early outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangzhou, PR China. J. Med. Microbiol. 52, 715-720
2. Xu, R. H., He, J. R, Evans, M. R. et al. (2004) Epidemiologie clues to SARS origin in China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 1030-1037
3. Lee, N., Hui, D. S., Wu, A. et al. (2003) A major outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 1986-1994
4. Hsu, L. Y., Lee, C. C., Green, J. A. et al. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome in Singapore: Clinical features of index patient and initial contacts. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 713-717
5. Booth, C. M., Matukas, L. M., Tomlinson, G. A. et al. (2003) Clinical features and short-term outcomes of 144 patients with SARS in the greater Toronto area. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 289, 2801-2809
6. Tsang, K. W., Ho, P. L., Ooi, G. C. et al. (2003) A cluster of cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 1977-1985
7. Reference deleted
8. Keng, C. T., Zhang, A., Shen, S. et al. (2005) Amino acids 1055 to 1192 in the S2 region of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus S protein induce neutralizing antibodies: implications for the development of vaccines and antiviral agents. J. Virol. 79, 3289-3296
9. Zhong, X., Yang, H., Guo, Z. F. et al. (2005) B-cell responses in patients who have recovered from severe acute respiratory syndrome target a dominant site in the S2 domain of the surface spike glycoprotein. J. Virol. 79, 3401-3408
10. Xu, J., Hu, J., Wang, J. et al. (2003) Genome organization of the SARS-CoV. Genomics, Proteomics Bioinformatics 1, 226-235
11. Lai, M. M. and Holmes, K. V. (2001) Coronaviridae: the viruses and their replication, In Fields Virology, 4th edn (Knipe, D. M., Howley, P. M., Griffin, D. E. et al., eds.) pp. 1163-1186, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
12. McIntosh, K. and Andersen, L. J. (2005) Coronaviruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus. In Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th edn (Mandell, G. L., Bennett, J. E. and Dolin, R., eds.), pp. 1990-1997, Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia
13. Marra, M. A., Jones, S. J., Astell, C. R., et al. (2003) The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus. Science 300, 1399-1404
14. Rota, P. A., Oberste, M. S., Monroe, S. S. et al. (2003) Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300, 1394-1399
15. Yeager, C. L., Ashmun, R. A., Williams, R. K., Cardellichio, C. B., Shapiro, L. H., Look, A. T. and Holmes, K. V. (1992) Human aminopeptidase N is a receptor for human coronavirus 229E. Nature (London) 357, 420-422
16. Vlasak, R., Luytjes, W., Spaan, W. and Palese, P. (1988) Human and bovine coronaviruses recognize sialic acid-containing receptors similar to those of influenza C viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85, 4526-4529
17. Collins, A. R. (1994) Human coronavirus OC43 interacts with major histocompatibility complex class I molecules at the cell surface to establish infection. Immunol. Invest. 23, 313-321
18. Li, W., Moore, M. J., Vasilieva, N. et al. (2003) Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature (London) 426, 450-454
19. Wang, P., Chen, J., Zheng, A. et al. (2004) Expression cloning of functional receptor used by SARS coronavirus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 315, 439-444
20. Nie, Y., Wang, P., Shi, X. et al. (2004) Highly infectious SARS-CoV pseudotyped virus reveals the cell tropism and its correlation with receptor expression. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 321, 994-1000
21. Chan, P. K., To, K. F., Lo, A. W. et al. (2004) Persistent infection of SARS coronavirus in colonic cells in vitro. J. Med. Virol. 74, 1-7
22. Jeffers, S. A., Tusell, S. M., Gillim-Ross, L. et al. (2004) CD209L (L-SIGN) is a receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 15748-15753
23. Donnelly, C. A., Ghani, A. V., Leung, G. M. et al. (2003) Epidemiological determinants of spread of causal agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. Lancet 361, 1761-1766
24. Twu, S. J., Chen, T. J., Chen, C. J. et al. (2003) Control measures for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Taiwan. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 718-720
25. Hui, D. S., Wong, P. C. and Wang, C. (2003) SARS: Clinical features and diagnosis. Respirology 8, S20-S24
26. Leung, W. K., To, K. F., Chan, P. K. et al. (2003) Enteric involvement of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus infection. Gastroenterology 125, 1011-1017
27. Chan, H. L., Kwan, A. C., To, K. F. et al. (2005) Clinical significance of hepatic derangement in severe acute respiratory syndrome. World J. Gastroenterol. 11, 2148-2153
28. Hui, D. S. and Sung, J. J. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chest 124, 12-15
29. Wong, G. W. and Hui, D. S. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome: epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. Thorax 58, 558-560
30. Wong, K. T., Antonio, G. E., Hui, D. S. et al. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome: radiographic appearances and pattern of progression in 138 patients. Radiology 228, 401-406
31. Peiris, J. S., Chu, C. M., Cheng, V. C. et al. (2003) Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: a prospective study. Lancet 361, 1767-1772
32. Gomersall, C. D., Joynt, G. M., Lam, P. et al. (2004) Short-term outcome of critically ill patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 30, 381-387
33. Wong, K. T., Antonio, G. E., Hui, D. S. et al. (2003) Thin section CT of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: evaluation of 73 patients exposed to or with the disease. Radiology 228, 395-400
34. Hung, E. C., Chim, S. S., Chan, P. K. et al. (2003) Detection of SARS coronavirus RNA in the cerebrospinal fluid of a patient with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Chem. 49, 2108-2109
35. Lau, K. K., Yu, W. C., Chu, C. M., Lau, S. T., Sheng, B. and Yuen, K. Y. (2004) Possible central nervous system infection by SARS coronavirus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 342-344
36. Wong, K. C., Leung, K. S. and Hui, M. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in a geriatric patient with a hip fracture. A case report. J. Bone Joint Surg. 85A, 1339-1342
37. Tee, A. K., Oh, H. M., Lien, C. T., Narendran, K., Heng, B. H. and Ling, A. E. (2004) Atypical SARS in a geriatric patient. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 261-264
38. Fisher, D. A., Lim, T. K., Lim, Y. T., Singli, K. S. and Tambyah, T. A. (2003) Atypical presentations of SARS. Lancet 361, 1740
39. Hon, K. L., Leung, C. W., Cheng, W. T. et al. (2003) Clinical presentations and outcome of severe acute respiratory syndrome in children. Lancet 561, 1701-1703
40. Sit, S. C., Van, L. K., Lam, Y. Y. et al. (2003) A young infant with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Pediatrics 112, c257
41. Bitnun, A., Allen, U., Heurter, H. et al. (2003) Children hospitalized with severe aeute respiratory syndrome-related illness in Toronto. Pediatrics 112, c261
42. Chiu, W. K., Cheung, P. C., Ng, K. L. et al. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome in children: Experience in a regional hospital in Hong Kong. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 4, 279-283
43. Chan, P. K., Ip, M., Ng, K. C. et al. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus infection. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 1453-1454
44. Ip, M., Chan, P. K., Lee, N. et al. (2004) Seroprevalence of antibody to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus among health care workers in SARS and non-SARS medical wards. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, e116-e118
45. Song, H. D., Tu, C. C., Zhang, G. W. et al. (2005) Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 2430-2435
46. Guan, Y., Zheng, B. J., He, Y. Q. et al. (2003) Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science 302, 276-278
47. The Chinese SARS Molecular Epidemiology Consortium (2004) Molecular evolution of the SARS coronavirus during the course of the SARS epidemic in China. Science 303, 1666-1669
48. Aitken, C. and Jeffries, D. J. (2001) Nosocomial spread of viral disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14, 528-546
49. Siegel, J., Strausbaugh, L., Jackson, M., Rhinehart, E. and Chiarello, L. A. (2004) Draft guidelines for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, (http://hica.jp/cdcguideline/ 2004DraftIsoGuideline.pdf)
50. Hammond, G. W., Raddatz, R. L. and Gelskey, D. E. (1989) Impact of atmospheric dispersion and transport ot viral aerosols on the epidemiology of influenza. Rev. Infect. Dis. 11, 494-497
51. Wong, R. S. and Hui, D. S. (2004) Index patient and SARS outbreak in Hong Kong. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 339-341
52. Manocha, S., Walley, K. R. and Russell, J. A. (2003) Severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (SARS): a critical care perspective. Crit. Care Med. 31, 2684-2692
53. Fowler, R. A., Lapinsky, S. E., Hallett, D. et al. (2003) Critically ill patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 290, 367-373
54. Lew, T. W., Kwek, T. K., Tai, D. et al. (2003) Acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 290, 374-380
55. Lapinsky, S. E. and Hawryluck, L. (2003) ICU management of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 29, 870-875
56. Tang, J. W. and Chan, R. C. (2004) Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in intensive care units (ICUs): Limiting the risk to healthcare workers. Curr. Anaesth. Crit. Care 15, 143-155
57. Yu, I. T., Li, Y., Wong, T. W. et al. (2004) Evidence of airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1731-1739
58. Ng, S. K. (2003) Possible role of an animal vector in the SARS outbreak at Amoy Gardens. Lancet 362, 570-572
59. Lee, S. H. (2003) The SARS epidemic in Hong Kong. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 57, 652-654
60. Booth, T. F., Kournikakis, B., Bastien, N. et al. (2005) Detection of airborne Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus and environmental contamination in SARS outbreak units. J. Infect. Dis. 191, 1472-1477
61. Yu, I. T., Wong, T. W., Chiu, Y. L., Lee, N. and Li, Y. (2005) Temporal-spatial analysis of severe acute respiratory syndrome among hospital inpatients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40, 1237-1243
62. Riley, S., Fraser, C., Donnelly, C. A. et al. (2003) Transmission dynamics of the etiological agent of SARS in Hong Kong: impact of public health interventions. Science 300, 1961-1966
63. Lipsitch, M., Cohen, T., Cooper, T. et al. (2003) transmission dynamics and control of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300, 1966-1970
64. Mims, C., Playfair, J., Roitt, I., Wakelin, D. and Williams, R. (1998) Epidemiologic aspects of the control of infection and disease. In Medical Microbiology, 2nd edn (Mims, C., Playfair, J., Roitt, I., Wakelin, D. and Williams, R., eds.), pp. 467-480, Mosby, London
65. Eraser, C., Riley, S., Anderson, R. M. and Ferguson, N. M. (2004) Factors that make an infectious disease outbreak controllable. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 6146-6151
66. Mills, C. E., Robins, J. M. and Lipsitch, M. (2004) Transmissibility of 1918 pandemic influenza. Nature (London) 432, 904-906
67. Afzelius, B. A. (1994) Ultrastructure of human nasal epithelium during an episode of coronavirus infection. Virchows Arch. 424, 295-300
68. Liu, C., Xu, H. Y. and Liu, D. X. (2001) Induction of caspase-dependent apoptosis in cultured cells by the avian coronavirus infections bronchitis Virus. J. Virol. 75, 6402-6409
69. Mossel, E. C., Huang, C., Narayanan, K., Makino, S., Tesh, R. B. and Peters, C. J. (2005) Exogenous ACE2 expression allows refractory cell lines to support severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication. J. Virol. 79, 3846-3850
70. Van, H., Xiao, G., Zhang, J. et al. (2004) SARS coronavirus induces apoptosis in Vero E6 cells. J. Med. Virol. 73, 323-331
71. Lavi, E., Wang, Q., Weiss, S. R. and Gonatas, N. K. (1996) Syncytia formation induced by coronavirus infection is associated with fragmentation and rearrangement of the Golgi apparatus. Virology 221, 325-334
72. Marten, N. W, Stohlman, S. A. and Bergmann, C. C. (2001) MHV infection of the CNS: mechanisms of immune-mediated control. Viral Immunol. 14, 1-18
73. Ning, Q., Liu, M., Kongkham, P. et al. (1999) The nucleocapsid protein of murine hepatitis virus type 3 induces transcription of the novel fgl2 prothrombinase gene. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 9930-9936
74. Weiss, R. C. and Scott, F. W. (1981) Antibody-mediated enhancement of disease in feline infectious peritonitis: comparisons with dengue hemorrhagic fever. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. bis. 4, 175-189
75. Nicholls, J. M., Poon, L. L., Lee, K. C. et al. (2003) Lung pathology of fatal severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet 361, 1773-1778
76. Antonio, G. K., Wong, K. T., Hui, D. S. et al. (2003) Thin-section CT in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome following hospital discharge: preliminary experience. Radiology 228, 810-815
77. Duan, Z. P., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., Xhao, J., Lang, Z. W., Meng, F. K. and Bao, X. L. (2003) Clinical characteristics and mechanism of liver injury in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Zhonghua Ganzangbing Zazhi 11, 493-496
78. Chan, H. L., Leung, W. K., To, K. F. et al. (2004) Retrospective analysis of liver function derangement in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Am. J. Med. 116, 566-567
79. He, Y., Lu, H., Siddiqui, P., Zhou, Y. and Jiang, S. (2005) Receptor-binding domain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein contains multiple conformation-dependent epitopes that induce highly potent neutralizing antibodies. J. Immunol. 174, 4908-4915
80. Sperry, S. M., Kazi, L., Graham, R. L., Baric, R. S., Weiss, S. R. and Denison, M. R. (2005) Single-amino-acid substitutions in open reading frame (ORF) 1b-nsp14 and ORF 2a proteins of the coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus are attenuating in mice. J. Virol. 79, 3391-3400
81. Leparc-Goffart, I., Hingley, S. T., Chua, M. M., Phillips, J., Lavi, E. and Weiss, S. R. (1998) Targeted recombination within the spike gene of murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus-A59: Q159 is a determinant of hepatotropism. J. Virol. 72, 9628-9636
82. Ballesteros, M. L., Sanchez, C. M. and Enjuanes, L. (1997) Two amino acid changes at the N-terminus of transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus spike protein result in the loss of enteric tropism. Virology 227, 378-388
83. Wong, C. K., Lam, C. W., Wu, A. K. et al. (2004) Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 136, 95-103
84. Jiang, Y., Xu, J., Zhou, C. et al. (2005) Characterization of cytokine/chemokine profiles of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 171, 850-857
85. Huang, K. J., Su, I. J., Theron, M., Wu, Y. C., Lai, S. K., Liu, C. C. and Lei, H. Y. (2005) An interferon-γ-related cytokine storm in SARS patients. J. Med. Virol. 75, 185-194
86. Xie, J., Han, Y., Li, T. S. et al. (2003) Dynamic changes of plasma cytokine levels m patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Zhonghua Neike Zazhi 42, 643-645
87. Zhang, Y., Li, J., Zhan, Y. et al. (2004) Analysis of serum cytokines in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Infect. Immun. 72, 4410-4415
88. Li, Z., Guo, X., Hao, W. et al. (2003) The relationship between serum interleukins and T-lymphocyte subsets in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chin. Med. J. (Engl). 116, 981-984
89. Wang, C., Pang, B. S. and National Research Project for SARS, Beijing Group (2003) Dynamic changes and the meanings of blood cytokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Zhonghua Jiehe He Huxi Zazhi 26, 586-589
90. Ng, P. C., Lam, C. W., Li, A. M. et al. (2004) Inflammatory cytokine profile in children with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Pediatrics 113, e7-e14
91. Lydyard, P. M., Whelan, A. and Fanger, M. W (2004) Molecules of the innate immune system. Instant Notes in Immunology, 2nd edn, pp. 23-32, BIOS Scientific Publishers, New York
92. Openshaw, P. J. (2004) What does the peripheral blood tell you in SARS? Clin. Exp. Immunol. 136, 11-12
93. Cinatl, J., Morgenstern, B., Bauer, G., Chandra, P., Rabenau, H. and Doerr, H. W. (2003) Glycyrrhizin, an active component of liquorice roots, and replication of SARS-associated coronavirus. Lancet 361, 2045-2046
94. Tan, E. L., Ooi, E. E., Lin, C. Y., Tan, H. C., Ling, A. E., Lim, B. and Stanton, L. W. (2004) Inhibition of SARS coronavirus infection in vitro with clinically approved antiviral drugs. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 581-586
95. Stroher, U., DiCaro, A., Li, Y. et al. (2004) Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus is inhibited by interferon α. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 1164-1167
96. Sung, J. J., Wu, A., Joynt, G. M. et al. (2004) Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: report of treatment and outcome after a major outbreak. Thorax 59, 414-420
97. Ng, E. K., Ng, P. C., Hon, K. L. et al. (2003) Serial analysis of the plasma concentration of SARS coronavirus RNA in pediatric patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Chem. 49, 2085-2088
98. Anand, K., Ziebuhr, J., Wadhwani, P., Mesters, J. R. and Hilgenfeld, R. (2003) Coronavirus main proteinase (3Clpro) structure: basis for design of anti-SARS drugs. Science 300, 1763-1767
99. Chu, C. M., Cheng, V. C., Hung, I. F. et al. (2004) Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax 59, 252-256
100. Chan, K. S., Lai, S. T., Chu, C. M. et al. (2003) Treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome with lopinavir/ritonavir: a multicenter retrospective matched cohort study. Hong Kong Med. J. 9, 399-406
101. Hurst, M. and Faulds, D. (2000) Lopinavir. Drugs 60, 1371-1381
102. Yamamoto, N., Yang, R., Yoshinaka, Y. et al. (2004) HIV protease inhibitor nelfinavir inhibits replication of SARS-associated coronavirus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 318, 719-725
103. Cinatl, J., Morgenstern, B., Bauer, G., Chandra, P., Rabenau, H. and Doerr, H. W. (2003) Treatment of SARS with human interferons. Lancet 362, 293-294
104. Hensley, L. E., Fritz, L. E., Jahrling, P. B., Karp, C. L., Huggins, J. W. and Geisbert, T. W. (2004) Interferon-β1a and SARS coronavirus replication. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 317-319
105. Sainz, Jr, B., Mossel, E. C., Peters, C. J. and Garry, R. F. (2004) Interferon-β and interferon-γ synergistically inhibit the replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Virology 329, 11-17
106. Morgenstern, B., Michaelis, M., Baer, P. C., Doerr, H. W. and Cinatl, Jr, J. (2005) Ribavirin and interferon-beta synergistically inhibit SARS-associated coronavirus replication in animal and human cell lines. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 326, 905-908
107. Chen, F., Chan, K. H., Jiang, Y. et al. (2005) In vitro susceptibility of 10 clinical isolates of SARS coronavirus to selected antiviral compounds. J. Clin. Virol. 39, 69-75
108. Haagmans, B. L., Kuiken, T., Martina, B. E. et al. (2004) Pegylated interferon-α protects type 1 pneumocytes against SARS coronavirus infection in macaques. Nat. Med. 10, 290-293
109. Loutfy, M. R., Blatt, L. M., Siminovitch, K. A. et al. (2003) Interferon Alfacon-1 plus corticosteroids in severe acute respiratory syndrome: a preliminary study. JAMA, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 290, 3222-3228
110. Sui, J., Li, W., Murakami, A. et al. (2004) Potent neutralization of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus by a human mAb to S1 protein that blocks receptor association. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 2536-2541
111. ter Meulen, J., Bakker, A. B., van den Brink, E. N. et al. (2004) Human monoclonal antibody as prophylaxis for SARS coronavirus infection in ferrets. Lancet 363, 2139-2141
112. Gao, W., Tamin, A., Soloff, A. et al. (2003) Effects of a SARS-associated coronavirus vaccine in monkeys. Lancet 362, 1895-1896
113. Zhao, P., Ke, J. S., Qin, Z. L. et al. (2004) DNA vaccine of SARS-CoV S gene induces antibody response in mice. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. (Shanghai) 36, 37-41
114. Yang, Z. Y., Kong, W. P., Huang, Y. et al. (2004) A DNA vaccine induces SARS coronavirus neutralization and protective immunity in mice. Nature (London) 428, 561-564
115. Ho, T. Y., Wu, S. L., Cheng, S. E., Wei, Y. C., Huang, S. P. and Hsiang, C. Y. (2004) Antigenicity and receptor-binding ability of recombinant SARS coronavirus spike protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 313, 938-947
116. Bisht, H., Roberts, A., Vogel, L. et al. (2004) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein expressed by attenuated vaccinia virus protectively immunizes mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 6641-6646
117. Bukreyev, A., Lamirande, E. W., Buchholz, U. J. et al. (2004) Mucosal immunisation of African green monkeys (Cercopitbecus aethiops) with an attenuated parainfluenza virus expressing the SARS coronavirus spike protein for the prevention of SARS. Lancet 363, 2122-2127
118. Bosch, B. J., Martina, B. E., van der Zee, R. et al. (2004) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection inhibition using spike protein heptad repeat-derived peptides. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 8455-8460
119. Choy, W. Y., Lin, S. G., Chan, P. K. et al. (2004) Synthetic peptide studies on the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus spike glycoprotein: perspective for SARS vaccine development. Clin. Chem. 50, 1036-1042
120. Ho, J. C., Ooi, G. C., Mok, T. Y. et al. (2003) High dose pulse versus non-pulse corticosteroid regimens in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168, 1449-1456
121. Tsang, O. T., Chau, T. N., Choi, K. W. et al. (2003) Coronavirus-positive nasopharyngeal aspirate as predictor for severe acute respiratory syndrome mortality. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 1381-1387
122. Wang, H., Ding, Y., Li, X., Yang, I., Zhang, W. and Kang, W. (2003) Fatal aspergillosis in a patient with SARS who was treated with corticosteroids. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 507-508
123. Hong, N. and Du, X. K. (2004) Avascular necrosis of bone in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin. Radiol. 59, 602-608
124. Griffith, J. F., Antonio, G. E., Kumta, S. M. et al. (2005) Osteonecrosis of hip and knee in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome treated with steroids. Radiology 235, 168-175
125. Lee, N., Allen Chan, K. C., Hui, D. S. et al. (2004) Effects of early corticosteroid treatment on plasma SARS-associated Coronavirus RNA concentrations in adult patients. J. Clin. Virol. 31, 304-309
126. Cheng, Y., Wong, R., Soo, Y. O. et al. (2005) Use of convalescent plasma therapy in SARS patients in Hong Kong. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 24, 44-46
127. Soo, Y. O., Cheng, Y., Wong, R. et al. (2004) Retrospective comparison of convalescent plasma with continuing high-dose methylprednisolone treatment in SARS patients. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 10, 676-678
128. Liu, B. Y., Hu, J. Q., Xie, Y. M. et al. (2004) Effects of integrative Chinese and Western medicine on arterial oxygen saturation in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chin. J. Integrative Med. 10, 117-122
129. Ballow, M. (1997) Mechanisms of action of intravenous immune serum globulin in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 100, 151-157
130. Chong, P. Y., Chui, P., Ling, A. E. et al. (2004) Analysis of deaths during the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic in Singapore: challenges in determining a SARS diagnosis. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 128, 195-204
131. Umapathi, T., Kor, A. C., Venketasubramanian, N. et al. (2004) Large artery ischaemic stroke in severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). J. Neurol. 251, 1227-1231
132. Ho, J. C., Wu, A. Y., Lam, B. et al. (2004) Pentaglobin in steroid-resistant severe acute respiratory syndrome. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 8, 1173-1179
133. Ng, K. H., Wu, A. K., Cheng, V. C. et al. (2005) Pulmonary artery thrombosis in a patient with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Postgrad. Med. J. 81, e3
134. Dalakas, M. C. and Clark, W. M. (2003) Strokes, thromboembolic events, and IVIg: rare incidents blemish an excellent safety record. Neurology 60, 1763-1767
135. Chen, L., Liu, P., Gao, H. et al. (2004) Inhalation of nitric oxide in the treatment of severe acute respiraton syndrome: a rescue trial in Beijing. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 1531-1535
136. Akerstrom, S., Mousavi-Jazi, M., Klingstrom, J., Leijon, M., Lunddvist, A. and Mirazimi, A. (2005) Nitric oxide inhibits the replication cycle of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J. Virol. 79, 1966-1969
137. Fowler, R. A., Guest, C. B., Lapinsky, S. K. et al. (2004) Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome during intubation and mechanical ventilation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 169, 1198-1202
138. Cheung, T. M., Yam, L. Y., So, L. K. et al. (2004) Effectiveness of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in the treatment of acute respiratory failure in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chest 126, 845-850
139. Hui, D. S. and Sung, J. J. (2004) Treatment of Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Chest 126, 670-674
140. Reference deleted
141. Tsui, P. T., Kwok, M. L., Yuen, H. and Lai, S. T. (2003) Severe acute respiratory syndrome: clinical outcome and prognostic correlates. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9, 1064-1069
142. Chan, J. W., Ng, C. K., Chan, Y. H. et al. (2003) Short term outcome and risk factors for adverse clinical outcomes in adults with severe acute respiratory svndrome (SARS). Thorax 58, 686-689
143. Wong, R. S., Wu, A., To, K. F. et al. (2003) Haematological manifestations in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: retrospective analysis. Br. Med. J. 326, 1358-1362
144. Chu, C. M., Poon, L. L., Cheng, V. C. et al. (2004) Initial viral load and the outcomes of SARS. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 171, 1349-1352
145. Hui, D. S., Joynt, G. M., Wong, K. T. et al. (2005) Impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) on pulmonary function, functional capacity and quality of life in a cohort of survivors. Thorax 60, 401-409
146. Hui, D. S., Wong, K. T., Ko, F. W. et al. (2005) The one-year impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) on pulmonary function, exercise capacity and quality of life in a cohort of survivors. Chest 128, 2247-2261
147. Tsai, I. K., Hsieh, S. T., Chao, C. C. et al. (2004) Ncuromuscular disorders in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Arch. Neurol. 61, 1669-1673
148. Yu, W. C., Hui, D. S. and Chan-Yeung, M. (2004) Antiviral agents and corticostcroids in the treatment of SARS. Thorax 59, 643-645
149. Tsang, K. W., Ooi, G. C. and Ho, P. L. (2004) Diagnosis and pharmacotherapy ot severe acute respiratory syndrome: what have we learnt? Kur. Respir. J. 24, 1025-1032
150. Chua, S. E., Cheung, V., McAlonan, G. M. et al. (2004) Stress and psychological impact on SARS patients during the outbreak. Can. J. Psychiatry 49, 385-390
151. Cheng, S. K., Wong, C. W., Tsang, J. and Wong, K. C. (2004) Psychological distress and negative appraisals in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Psychol. Med. 34, 1187-1195
152. Lee, D. T., Wing, Y. K., Leung, H. C. et al. (2004) Factors associated with psychosis among patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: a case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 1247-1249