Status epilepticus: Pathophysiology and management in adults

Lancet Neurology

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 246-256

  Chen, James W Y ^a   Wasterlain, Claude G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID A RECEPTOR; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; DIAZEPAM; FOSPHENYTOIN SODIUM; HYDANTOIN; KETAMINE; LORAZEPAM; MIDAZOLAM; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; PENTOBARBITAL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PROPOFOL; THIOPENTAL; VALPROIC ACID;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CELLULAR DISTRIBUTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DISEASE COURSE; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SAFETY; EMERGENCY CARE; EPILEPTIC STATE; EPILEPTOGENESIS; GENERAL ANESTHESIA; GROUPS BY AGE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INJECTION SITE PAIN; INJECTION SITE PHLEBITIS; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; LIVER DISEASE; NERVE CELL LESION; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; PANCREATITIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MONITORING; PEDIATRICS; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFRACTORY PERIOD; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; THERAPY DELAY; TREATMENT FAILURE; VITAL SIGN;

ANESTHESIA, GENERAL; ANIMALS; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; SEIZURES; STATUS EPILEPTICUS;

EID: 32544434351     PISSN: 14744422     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70374-X     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. S Shorvon Status epilepticus: its clinical features and treatment in children and adults 1994 University Press Cambridge
2. S Shorvon The classification of status epilepticus Epileptic Disord 7 2005 1 3
3. JJ Riviello Jr, GL Holmes The treatment of status epilepticus Semin Pediatr Neurol 11 2004 129 138
4. K Morimoto, M Fahnestock, RJ Racine Kindling and status epilepticus models of epilepsy: rewiring the brain Prog Neurobiol 73 2004 1 60
5. A Pitkanen, H Kubova Antiepileptic drugs in neuroprotection Expert Opin Pharmacother 5 2004 777 798
6. DH Lowenstein Treatment options for status epilepticus Curr Opin Pharmacol 3 2003 6 11
7. S Bassin, TL Smith, TP Bleck Clinical review: status epilepticus Crit Care 6 2002 137 142
8. F Rosenow, A Arzimanoglou, M Baulac Recent developments in treatment of status epilepticus: a review Epileptic Disord 4 suppl 2 2002 S41 S51
9. R Appleton, I Choonara, T Martland, B Phillips, R Scott, W Whitehouse The treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children Arch Dis Child 83 2000 415 419
10. CG Wasterlain DM Treiman Status Epilepticus: mechanisms and management 2001 MIT Press Boston (in press)
11. A Trousseau Lectures on clinical medicine delivered at the Hotel Dieu, Paris, vol 1. translated by Bazire PV 1868 New Sydenham Society London
12. LF Calmeil De l'epilepsie, etudiee sous le rapport de son siege et de son influence sur la production de l'alienation mentale 1824 These de l' Universite de Paris Paris
13. DM Bourneville L'etat de mal epileptique Bourneville DM Recherches cliniques et therapeutiques sur l'epilepsie et l'hysterie. Compte-rendu des observations recueillies a la Salpetriere 1876 Delahaye Paris
14. LP Clark, TP Prout Status epilepticus: a clinical and pathological study in epilepsy. [An article in 3 parts] Am J Insanity 60 1903 291 306 60: 645-75, 61: 81-108
15. AM Mazarati, CG Wasterlain, R Sankar, D Shin Self-sustaining status epilepticus after brief electrical stimulation of the perforant path Brain Res 801 10 1998 251 253
16. DM Treiman, PD Meyers, NY Walton A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus: Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group N Engl J Med 339 1998 792 798
17. H Gastaut Classification of status epilepticus Adv Neurol 34 1983 15 35
18. H Gastaut A propos d' une classification symptomatologique des etats de mal epileptiques Gastaut H Roger J Lob H Les etats de mal epileptiques 1967 Masson Paris 1 8
19. CG Wasterlain Mortality and morbidity from serial seizures: an experimental study Epilepsia 15 1974 155 176
20. DG Fujikawa The temporal evolution of neuronal damage from pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus Brain Res 725 1996 11 22
21. Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Recommendations of the Epilepsy Foundation of America's Working Group on Status Epilepticus JAMA 270 1993 854 859
22. TP Bleck Convulsive disorders: status epilepticus Clin Neuropharmacol 14 1991 191 198
23. Wasterlain CG. Definition and classification of status epilepticus. The International Meeting on Status Epilepticus, Santa Monica, CA; 1997 (abstr).
24. DH Lowenstein, T Bleck, RL Macdonald It's time to revise the definition of status epilepticus Epilepsia 40 1999 120 122
25. BS Meldrum The revised operational definition of generalised tonic-clonic status epilepticus in adults Epilepsia 40 1999 123 124
26. S Shorvon The management of status epilepticus J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70 suppl 2 2001 II22 II27
27. RJ Delorenzo, LK Garnett, AR Towne Comparison of status epilepticus with prolonged seizure episodes lasting from 10 to 29 minutes Epilepsia 40 1999 164 169
28. WH Theodore, RJ Porter, P Albert The secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizure: a videotape analysis Neurology 44 1994 1403 1407
29. R Kramer, P Levisohn The duration of secondarily generalized tonic-clinic seizures Epilepsia 33 1992 68 (abstr)
30. CG Wasterlain, H Liu, AM Mazarati Self-sustaining status epilepticus: a condition maintained by potentiation of glutamate receptors and by plastic changes in substance P and other peptide neuromodulators Epilepsia 41 suppl 6 2000 S134 S143
31. AM Mazarati, RA Baldwin, R Sankar, CG Wasterlain Time-dependent decrease in the effectiveness of antiepileptic drugs during the course of self-sustaining status epilepticus Brain Res 814 1998 179 185
32. J Kapur, RL Macdonald Rapid seizure-induced reduction of benzodiazepine and Zn2+ sensitivity of hippocampal dentate granule cell GABAA receptors J Neurosci 17 1997 7532 7540
33. DM Treiman, NY Walton, C Kendrick A progressive sequence of electroencephalographic changes during generalized convulsive status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 5 1990 49 60
34. RJ Delorenzo, EJ Waterhouse, AR Towne Persistent nonconvulsive status epilepticus after the control of convulsive status epilepticus Epilepsia 39 1998 833 840
35. RS Sloviter Decreased hippocampal inhibition and a selective loss of interneurons in experimental epilepsy Science 235 1987 73 76
36. RJ Delorenzo, WA Hauser, AR Towne A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia Neurology 46 1996 1029 1035
37. S Knake, F Rosenow, M Vescovi Incidence of status epilepticus in adults in Germany: a prospective, population-based study Epilepsia 42 2001 714 718
38. A Coeytaux, P Jallon, B Galobardes, A Morabia Incidence of status epilepticus in French-speaking Switzerland: (EPISTAR) Neurology 55 2000 693 697
39. DC Hesdorffer, G Logroscino, G Cascino, JF Annegers, WA Hauser Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965-1984 Neurology 50 1998 735 741
40. EP Sloan, JC Silva, MS Rosenberg Outcome in adult seizure patients treated in the emergency setting Ann Emerg Med 34 1999 S101
41. GG Buterbaugh, HB Michelson, DO Keyser Status epilepticus facilitated by pilocarpine in amygdala-kindled rats Exp Neurol 94 1986 91 102
42. RA Morrisett, RS Jope, OC Snead III Status epilepticus is produced by administration of cholinergic agonists to lithium-treated rats: comparison with kainic acid Exp Neurol 98 1987 594 605
43. Suchomelova L, Baldwin RA, Kubova H, Thompson KW, Sankar R, Wasterlain CG. Treatment of experimental status epilepticus in immature rats: dissociation between anticonvulsant and antiepileptogenic effects. Pediatr Res (in press).
44. EW Lothman, EH Bertram, JW Bekenstein, JB Perlin Self-sustaining limbic status epilepticus induced by 'continuous' hippocampal stimulation: electrographic and behavioral characteristics Epilepsy Res 3 1989 107 119
45. EW Lothman, EH Bertram, J Kapur, JL Stringer Recurrent spontaneous hippocampal seizures in the rat as a chronic sequela to limbic status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 6 1990 110 118
46. R Sankar, D Shin, AM Mazarati, H Liu, CG Wasterlain Ontogeny of self-sustaining status epilepticus Dev Neurosci 21 1999 345 351
47. CJ de Campos, EA Cavalheiro Modification of the "kindling" method for obtaining experimental status epilepticus in rats Arq Neuropsiquiatr 38 1980 81 88
48. DC McIntyre, D Nathanson, N Edson A new model of partial status epilepticus based on kindling Brain Res 250 1982 53 63
49. NW Milgram, I Green, M Liberman, K Riexinger, TL Petit Establishment of status epilepticus by limbic system stimulation in previously unstimulated rats Exp Neurol 88 1985 253 264
50. RA Morrisett, RS Jope, OC Snead III Effects of drugs on the initiation and maintenance of status epilepticus induced by administration of pilocarpine to lithium-pretreated rats Exp Neurol 97 1987 193 200
51. DP Cain, DJ McKitrick, F Boon Rapid and reliable induction of partial status epilepticus in naive rats by low-frequency (3-Hz) stimulation of the amygdala Epilepsy Res 12 1992 51 55
52. KH Taber, JJ McNamera, SF Zornetzer Status epilepticus: a new rodent model Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 43 1977 707 724
53. JP Vicedomini, JV Nadler A model of status epilepticus based on electrical stimulation of hippocampal afferent pathways Exp Neurol 96 1987 681 691
54. EA van Vliet, E Aronica, EA Tolner, FH Lopes Da Silva, JA Gorter Progression of temporal lobe epilepsy in the rat is associated with immunocytochemical changes in inhibitory interneurons in specific regions of the hippocampal formation Exp Neurol 187 2004 367 379
55. A Pitkanen, J Tuunanen, R Kalviainen, K Partanen, T Salmenpera Amygdala damage in experimental and human temporal lobe epilepsy Epilepsy Res 32 1998 233 253
56. CG Wasterlain, AM Mazarati, D Naylor Short-term plasticity of hippocampal neuropeptides and neuronal circuitry in experimental status epilepticus Epilepsia 43 suppl 5 2002 20 29
57. AM Mazarati, CG Wasterlain N-methyl-D-asparate receptor antagonists abolish the maintenance phase of self-sustaining status epilepticus in rat Neurosci Lett 265 1999 187 190
58. KB Krishnamurthy, FW Drislane Relapse and survival after barbiturate anesthetic treatment of refractory status epilepticus Epilepsia 37 1996 863 867
59. DE Naylor, H Liu, CG Wasterlain Trafficking of GABA(A) receptors, loss of inhibition, and a mechanism for pharmacoresistance in status epilepticus J Neurosci 25 2005 7724 7733
60. H Liu, AM Mazarati, H Katsumori, R Sankar, CG Wasterlain Substance P is expressed in hippocampal principal neurons during status epilepticus and plays a critical role in the maintenance of status epilepticus Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 1999 5286 5291
61. A Vezzani, G Sperk, WF Colmers Neuropeptide Y: emerging evidence for a functional role in seizure modulation Trends Neurosci 22 1999 25 30
62. G Sperk, R Wieser, R Widmann, EA Singer Kainic acid induced seizures: changes in somatostatin, substance P and neurotensin Neuroscience 17 1986 1117 1126
63. AM Mazarati, H Liu, U Soomets Galanin modulation of seizures and seizure modulation of hippocampal galanin in animal models of status epilepticus J Neurosci 18 1998 10070 10077
64. A Mazarati, H Liu, C Wasterlain Opioid peptide pharmacology and immunocytochemistry in an animal model of self-sustaining status epilepticus Neuroscience 89 1999 167 173
65. CG Wasterlain Inhibition of cerebral protein synthesis by epileptic seizures without motor manifestations Neurology 24 1974 175 180
66. DE Naylor, CG Wasterlain GABA synapses and the rapid loss of inhibition to dentate gyrus granule cells after brief perforant-path stimulation Epilepsia 46 suppl 5 2005 142 147
67. K Kaila, J Voipio Postsynaptic fall in intracellular pH induced by GABA-activated bicarbonate conductance Nature 330 1987 163 165
68. KJ Staley, BL Soldo, WR Proctor Ionic mechanisms of neuronal excitation by inhibitory GABAA receptors Science 269 1995 977 981
69. CG Wasterlain, H Liu, A Mazarati, RA Balwin NMDA receptor trafficking during the transition from single seizures to status epilepticus Ann Neurol 52 suppl 1 2002 16 (abstr)
70. H Liu, A Mazarati, RA Balwin, CG Wasterain Tachykinin receptor trafficking in status epilepticus Neurology 60 2003 517 (abstr)
71. CG Wasterlain, JM Bronstein, AM Morin, BE Dwyer, R Sankar Translocation and autophosphorylation of brain calmodulin kinase II in status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 9 suppl 1992 231 238
72. A Vezzani, T Ravizza, D Moneta Brain-derived neurotrophic factor immunoreactivity in the limbic system of rats after acute seizures and during spontaneous convulsions: temporal evolution of changes as compared to neuropeptide Y Neuroscience 90 1999 1445 1461
73. BS Meldrum, RW Horton Physiology of status epilepticus in primates Arch Neurol 28 1973 1 9
74. BS Meldrum, RA Vigouroux, JB Brierley Systemic factors and epileptic brain damage. Prolonged seizures in paralyzed, artificially ventilated baboons Arch Neurol 29 1973 82 87
75. HR Cock, X Tong, IP Hargreaves Mitochondrial dysfunction associated with neuronal death following status epilepticus in rat Epilepsy Res 48 2002 157 168
76. J Niquet, RA Baldwin, SG Allen, DG Fujikawa, CG Wasterlain Hypoxic neuronal necrosis: protein synthesis-independent activation of a cell death program Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 2003 2825 2830
77. H Pollard, C Charriaut-Marlangue, S Cantagrel Kainate-induced apoptotic cell death in hippocampal neurons Neuroscience 63 1994 7 18
78. S Sakhi, A Bruce, N Sun, G Tocco, M Baudry, SS Schreiber p53 induction is associated with neuronal damage in the central nervous system Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91 1994 7525 7529
79. JA Corsellis, CJ Bruton Neuropathology of status epilepticus in humans Adv Neurol 34 1983 129 139
80. CM DeGiorgio, JD Correale, PS Gott Serum neuron-specific enolase in human status epilepticus Neurology 45 1995 1134 1137
81. AL Rabinowicz, JD Correale, KA Bracht, TD Smith, CM DeGiorgio Neuron-specific enolase is increased after nonconvulsive status epilepticus Epilepsia 36 1995 475 479
82. ME O'Regan, JK Brown Serum neuron specific enolase: a marker for neuronal dysfunction in children with continuous EEG epileptiform activity Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2 1998 193 197
83. K Chu, DW Kang, JY Kim, KH Chang, SK Lee Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in nonconvulsive status epilepticus Arch Neurol 58 2001 993 998
84. MT Walker, SY Lee Profound neocortical atrophy after prolonged, continuous status epilepticus AJR Am J Roentgenol 173 1999 1712 1713
85. MG Lansberg, MW O'Brien, AM Norbash, ME Moseley, M Morrell, GW Albers MRI abnormalities associated with partial status epilepticus Neurology 52 1999 1021 1027
86. F Lazeyras, O Blanke, I Zimine, J Delavelle, SH Perrig, M Seeck MRI, (1)H-MRS, and functional MRI during and after prolonged nonconvulsive seizure activity Neurology 55 2000 1677 1682
87. T Salmenpera, R Kalviainen, K Partanen, E Mervaala, A Pitkanen MRI volumetry of the hippocampus, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex after status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 40 2000 155 170
88. J Nixon, D Bateman, T Moss An MRI and neuropathological study of a case of fatal status epilepticus Seizure 10 2001 588 591
89. F Cendes, F Andermann, S Carpenter, RJ Zatorre, NR Cashman Temporal lobe epilepsy caused by domoic acid intoxication: evidence for glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in humans Ann Neurol 37 1995 123 126
90. JL Freeman, LT Coleman, LJ Smith, LK Shield Hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia- epilepsy syndrome: characteristic early magnetic resonance imaging findings J Child Neurol 17 2002 10 16
91. S Men, DH Lee, JR Barron, DG Munoz Selective neuronal necrosis associated with status epilepticus: MR findings AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21 2000 1837 1840
92. T Morimoto, M Fukuda, Y Suzuki, M Kusu, K Kida Sequential changes of brain CT and MRI after febrile status epilepticus in a 6-year-old girl Brain Dev 24 2002 190 193
93. R Sankar, D Shin, AM Mazarati Epileptogenesis after status epilepticus reflects age- and model-dependent plasticity Ann Neurol 48 2000 580 589
94. E Tremblay, Y Ben-Ari Usefulness of parenteral kainic acid as a model of temporal lobe epilepsy Rev Electroencephalogr Neurophysiol Clin 14 1984 241 246
95. EA Cavalheiro, DA Riche, SG Le Gal La Long-term effects of intrahippocampal kainic acid injection in rats: a method for inducing spontaneous recurrent seizures Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 53 1982 581 589
96. EA Cavalheiro, JP Leite, ZA Bortolotto, WA Turski, C Ikonomidou, L Turski Long-term effects of pilocarpine in rats: structural damage of the brain triggers kindling and spontaneous recurrent seizures Epilepsia 32 1991 778 782
97. A Obenaus, M Esclapez, CR Houser Loss of glutamate decarboxylase mRNA-containing neurons in the rat dentate gyrus following pilocarpine-induced seizures J Neurosci 13 1993 4470 4485
98. JP Wuarin, FE Dudek Electrographic seizures and new recurrent excitatory circuits in the dentate gyrus of hippocampal slices from kainate-treated epileptic rats J Neurosci 16 1996 4438 4448
99. DL Tauck, JV Nadler Evidence of functional mossy fiber sprouting in hippocampal formation of kainic acid-treated rats J Neurosci 5 1985 1016 1022
100. T Sutula, G Cascino, J Cavazos, I Parada, L Ramirez Mossy fiber synaptic reorganization in the epileptic human temporal lobe Ann Neurol 26 1989 321 330
101. DC Hesdorffer, G Logroscino, G Cascino, JF Annegers, WA Hauser Risk of unprovoked seizure after acute symptomatic seizure: effect of status epilepticus Ann Neurol 44 1998 908 912
102. CM Verity, EM Ross, J Golding Outcome of childhood status epilepticus and lengthy febrile convulsions: findings of national cohort study BMJ 307 1993 225 228
103. A Pitkanen, PA Schwartzkroin, SL Moshe Models of seizures and epilepsy 1st edn. 2006 Elsevier Academic Press
104. Y Ben-Ari Limbic seizure and brain damage produced by kainic acid: mechanisms and relevance to human temporal lobe epilepsy Neuroscience 14 1985 375 403
105. EA Cavalheiro The pilocarpine model of epilepsy Ital J Neurol Sci 16 1995 33 37
106. GL Holmes Seizure-induced neuronal injury: animal data Neurology 59 suppl 5 2002 S3 S6
107. FA Lado, EC Laureta, SL Moshe Seizure-induced hippocampal damage in the mature and immature brain Epileptic Disord 4 2002 83 97
108. JP Leite, N Garcia-Cairasco, EA Cavalheiro New insights from the use of pilocarpine and kainate models Epilepsy Res 50 2002 93 103
109. CG Wasterlain, Y Shirasaka Seizures, brain damage and brain development Brain Dev 16 1994 279 295
110. CG Wasterlain, DG Fujikawa, L Penix, R Sankar Pathophysiological mechanisms of brain damage from status epilepticus Epilepsia 34 suppl 1 1993 S37 S53
111. DH Lowenstein, BK Alldredge Status epilepticus N Engl J Med 338 1998 970 976
112. MC Walker, SJ Smith, SD Shorvon The intensive care treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in the UK: results of a national survey and recommendations Anaesthesia 50 1995 130 135
113. EJ Waterhouse, LK Garnett, AR Towne Prospective population-based study of intermittent and continuous convulsive status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia Epilepsia 40 1999 752 758
114. JC Cloyd, RL Lalonde, TE Beniak, GD Novack A single-blind, crossover comparison of the pharmacokinetics and cognitive effects of a new diazepam rectal gel with intravenous diazepam Epilepsia 39 1998 520 526
115. M Collins, H Marin, P Rutecki, D Heller A protocol for status epilepticus in a long-term care facility using rectal diazepam (Diastat) J Am Med Dir Assoc 2 2001 66 70
116. BK Alldredge, AM Gelb, SM Isaacs A comparison of lorazepam, diazepam, and placebo for the treatment of out-of-hospital status epilepticus N Engl J Med 345 2001 631 637
117. RC Scott, FM Besag, BG Neville Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomised trial Lancet 353 1999 623 626
118. J McIntyre, S Robertson, E Norris Safety and efficacy of buccal midazolam versus rectal diazepam for emergency treatment of seizures in children: a randomised controlled trial Lancet 366 2005 Jul 205 210
119. MC Walker Status epilepticus on the intensive care unit J Neurol 250 2003 401 406
120. J Lundgren, ML Smith, G Blennow, BK Siesjo Hyperthermia aggravates and hypothermia ameliorates epileptic brain damage Exp Brain Res 99 1994 43 55
121. Z Liu, A Gatt, M Mikati, GL Holmes Effect of temperature on kainic acid-induced seizures Brain Res 631 1993 51 58
122. RP Simon, MJ Aminoff Clinical aspects of status epilepticus in an unselected urban population Trans Am Neurol Assoc 105 1980 46 47
123. BS Meldrum Endocrine consequences of status epilepticus Adv Neurol 34 1983 399 403
124. BE Dwyer, CG Wasterlain Neonatal seizures in monkeys and rabbits: brain glucose depletion in the face of normoglycemia, prevention by glucose loads Pediatr Res 19 1985 992 995
125. MJ Aminoff, RP Simon Status epilepticus. Causes, clinical features and consequences in 98 patients Am J Med 69 1980 657 666
126. JH Swan, BS Meldrum, RP Simon Hyperglycemia does not augment neuronal damage in experimental status epilepticus Neurology 36 1986 1351 1354
127. DM Woodbury Experimental models of status epilepticus and mechanisms of drug action Adv Neurol 34 1983 149 160
128. DM Woodbury, R KARLER The role of carbon dioxide in the nervous system Anesthesiology 21 1960 686 703
129. RG Giffard, H Monyer, CW Christine, DW Choi Acidosis reduces NMDA receptor activation, glutamate neurotoxicity, and oxygen-glucose deprivation neuronal injury in cortical cultures Brain Res 506 1990 339 342
130. IE Leppik, AT Derivan, RW Homan, J Walker, RE Ramsay, B Patrick Double-blind study of lorazepam and diazepam in status epilepticus JAMA 249 1983 1452 1454
131. AR Towne, JM Pellock, D Ko, RJ Delorenzo Determinants of mortality in status epilepticus Epilepsia 35 1994 27 34
132. YW Wu, DW Shek, PA Garcia, S Zhao, SC Johnston Incidence and mortality of generalized convulsive status epilepticus in California Neurology 58 2002 1070 1076
133. A Kumar, TP Bleck Intravenous midazolam for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus Crit Care Med 20 1992 483 488
134. E Lahat, M Aladjem, G Eshel, T Bistritzer, Y Katz Midazolam in treatment of epileptic seizures Pediatr Neurol 8 1992 215 216
135. S Singhi, A Murthy, P Singhi, M Jayashree Continuous midazolam versus diazepam infusion for refractory convulsive status epilepticus J Child Neurol 17 2002 106 110
136. J Hardman, LE Limbird, A.G. Gilman Goodman & Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics tenth edition 2001 McGraw-Hill USA
137. P Coulthard, K Sano, PJ Thomson, TV Macfarlane The effects of midazolam and flumazenil on psychomotor function and alertness in human volunteers Br Dent J 188 2000 325 328
138. BD Jamerson, GE Dukes, KL Brouwer, KH Donn, JA Messenheimer, JR Powell Venous irritation related to intravenous administration of phenytoin versus fosphenytoin Pharmacotherapy 13 1994 47 52
139. M Giroud, R Dumas Treatment of status epilepticus by sodium valproate Neurophysiol Clin 18 1988 21 32
140. CA Hovinga, MF Chicella, DF Rose, SK Eades, JT Dalton, SJ Phelps Use of intravenous valproate in three pediatric patients with nonconvulsive or convulsive status epilepticus Ann Pharmacother 33 1999 579 584
141. V Venkataraman, JW Wheless Safety of rapid intravenous infusion of valproate loading doses in epilepsy patients Epilepsy Res 35 1999 147 153
142. PE Marik, J Varon The management of status epilepticus Chest 126 2004 582 591
143. RL Koul, AG Raj, A Chacko, R Joshi, EM Seif Continuous midazolam infusion as treatment of status epilepticus Arch Dis Child 76 1997 445 448
144. R Koul, A Chacko, H Javed, RK Al Eight-year study of childhood status epilepticus: midazolam infusion in management and outcome J Child Neurol 17 2002 908 910
145. JM Parent, DH Lowenstein Treatment of refractory generalized status epilepticus with continuous infusion of midazolam Neurology 44 1994 1837 1840
146. H Ulvi, T Yoldas, B Mungen, R Yigiter Continuous infusion of midazolam in the treatment of refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus Neurol Sci 23 2002 177 182
147. JM Niermeijer, CS Uiterwaal, CA Van Donselaar Propofol in status epilepticus: little evidence, many dangers? J Neurol 250 2003 1237 1240
148. J Claassen, LJ Hirsch, SA Mayer Treatment of status epilepticus: a survey of neurologists J Neurol Sci 211 2003 37 41
149. J Claassen, LJ Hirsch, RG Emerson, SA Mayer Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with pentobarbital, propofol, or midazolam: a systematic review Epilepsia 43 2002 146 153
150. A Prasad, BB Worrall, EH Bertram, TP Bleck Propofol and midazolam in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus Epilepsia 42 2001 380 386
151. M Holtkamp, X Tong, MC Walker Propofol in subanesthetic doses terminates status epilepticus in a rodent model Ann Neurol 49 2001 260 263
152. MM Stecker, TH Kramer, EC Raps, R O'Meeghan, E Dulaney, DJ Skaar Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with propofol: clinical and pharmacokinetic findings Epilepsia 39 1998 18 26
153. I Osorio, RC Reed Treatment of refractory generalized tonic-clonic status epilepticus with pentobarbital anesthesia after high-dose phenytoin Epilepsia 30 1989 464 471
154. RD Sheth, BE Gidal Refractory status epilepticus: response to ketamine Neurology 51 1998 1765 1766
155. DG Fujikawa Neuroprotective effect of ketamine administered after status epilepticus onset Epilepsia 36 1995 186 195
156. DJ Borris, EH Bertram, J Kapur Ketamine controls prolonged status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 42 2000 117 122
157. EE Ubogu, SM Sagar, AJ Lerner, BN Maddux, JI Suarez, MA Werz Ketamine for refractory status epilepticus: a case of possible ketamine-induced neurotoxicity Epilepsy Behav 4 2003 70 75
158. A Mazarati, RA Balwin, H Klitgaard, A Matagne, CG Wasterlain Treatment with levetiracetam during the latent period after experimental status epilepticus reduces chronic spontaneous recurrent seizures Epilepsia 44 suppl 9 2003 223 (abstr)
159. AM Mazarati, RD Sofia, CG Wasterlain Anticonvulsant and antiepileptogenic effects of fluorofelbamate in experimental status epilepticus Seizure 11 2002 423 430
160. AM Mazarati, RA Baldwin, RD Sofia, CG Wasterain Felbamate in experimental model of status epilepticus Epilepsia 41 2000 123 127
161. AM Mazarati, R Baldwin, H Klitgaard, A Matagne, CG Wasterlain Anticonvulsant effects of levetiracetam and levetiracetam-diazepam combinations in experimental status epilepticus Epilepsy Res 58 2004 167 174