Idiopathic environmental intolerance: Part 2: A causation analysis applying Bradford Hill's criteria to the psychogenic theory

Toxicological Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 247-261

  Staudenmayer, Herman ^a   Binkley, Karen E ^b   Leznoff, Arthur ^b   Phillips, Scott ^c  

^a Treatment and Research Center   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c Toxicology Associates Denver   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL; TOXIC SUBSTANCE;

ANXIETY DISORDER; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; COGNITIVE THERAPY; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; MENTAL DISEASE; METHODOLOGY; MULTIPLE CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY; PANIC; PHYSICAL DISABILITY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOSOCIAL DISORDER; PSYCHOTHERAPY; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; SOMATOFORM DISORDER; SYMPTOMATOLOGY;

ANIMALS; CAUSALITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; HUMANS; MULTIPLE CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY; PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIC DISORDERS;

EID: 3242891905     PISSN: 11762551     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00139709-200322040-00006     Document Type: Review

References (232)

1. Staudenmayer H, Binkley KE, Leznoff A, et al. Idiopathic environmental intolerance: part 1 - a causation analysis applying Bradford Hill's criteria to the toxicogenic theory. Toxicol Rev 2003; 22 (3): 235-46
2. McKenna PJ. Disorders with overvalued ideas. Br J Psychiatry 1984; 145: 579-85
3. Ross SE. 'Memes' as infectious agents in psychosomatic illness. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131: 867-71
4. Staudenmayer H. Environmental illness: myth and reality. Boca Raton (FL): CRC/Lewis Publishers, 1999
5. Staudenmayer H. Idiopathic environmental intolerances (IEI): myth and reality. Toxicol Lett 2001; 120: 333-42
6. Black DW. The relationship of mental disorders and idiopathic environmental intolerance. Occup Med 2000; 15: 557-70
7. Sparks PJ. Idiopathic environmental intolerances: overview. Occup Med 2000; 15: 497-510
8. Bornschein S, Forstl H, Zilker T. Idiopathic environmental intolerances (formerly multiple chemical sensitivity) psychiatric perspectives. J Intern Med 2001; 250: 309-21
9. Gothe CJ, Molin CM, Nilsson CG. The environmental somatization syndrome. Psychosomatics 1995; 36: 1-11
10. Boss LP. Epidemic hysteria: a review of the published literature. Epidemiol Rev 1997; 19: 232-43
11. Bartholomew RE, Wessely S. Protean nature of mass sociogenic illness. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 180: 300-4
12. Dodes JE. The amalgam controversy: an evidence-based analysis. J Am Dent Assoc 2001; 132: 348-56
13. Selner JC, Staudenmayer H. Food allergy: psychological considerations. In: Metcalfe DD, Sampson HA, Simon RA, editors. Food allergy: adverse reactions to foods and food additives. 2nd ed. Cambridge (MA): Blackwell Science, 1997: 519-28
14. Staudenmayer H, Selner JC. Psychological manifestations in idiopathic environmental intolerance (foods). In: Frieri M, Kettelhut B, editors. Food hypersensitivity and adverse reactions. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1999: 347-80
15. Levallois P. Hypersensitivity of human subjects to environmental electric and magnetic field exposure: a review of the literature. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 613-8
16. Tarlo SM, Poonai N, Binkley K. Responses to panic induction procedures in subjects with multiple chemical sensitivity/idiopathic environmental intolerance: understanding the relationship with panic disorder. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 669-71
17. Meggs WJ. RADS and RUDS: the toxic induction of asthma and rhinitis. Clin Toxicol 1994; 32: 487-501
18. Bell IR, Hardin EE, Baldwin CM, et al. Increased limbic system symptomatology and sensitizability of young adults with chemical and noise sensitivities. Environ Res 1995; 70: 84-97
19. Ziem GE, Davidoff LL. Illness from chemical 'odors': is the health significance understood? Arch Environ Health 1992; 47: 88-91
20. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1994
21. Simon GE, Daniell W, Stockbridge H, et al. Immunologic, psychological and neuropsychological factors in multiple chemical sensitivity. Ann Intern Med 1993; 19: 97-103
22. Black DW, Rathe A, Goldstein RB. Environmental illness: a controlled study of 26 subjects with '20th century disease.' JAMA 1990; 264: 3166-70
23. Black DW, Rathe A, Goldstein RB. Measures of distress in 26 'environmentally ill' subjects. Psychosomatics 1993; 34: 131-8
24. Hausteiner C, Bornschein S, Bickel H, et al. Psychiatric morbidity and low self-attentiveness in patients with environmental illness. J Nerv Ment Dis 2003; 191: 50-5
25. Brewin CR. Cognitive theories of motivation. In: Eysenck H, Martin I, editors. Theoretical foundations of behavior therapy. New York: Plenum, 1987: 277-93
26. Shedler J, Mayman M, Manis M. The illusion of mental health. Am Psychol 1993; 48: 1117-31
27. Fiedler N, Maccia C, Kipen H. Evaluation of chemically sensitive patients. J Occup Med 1992; 34: 529-38
28. Staudenmayer H, Selner JC. Failure to assess psychopathology in patients presenting with chemical sensitivities. J Occup Med 1995; 37: 704-9
29. Terr AI. Environmental illness: a clinical review of 50 cases. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 145-9
30. Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation. Proc R Soc Med 1965; 58: 295-300
31. Hammond EC. Some preliminary findings on physical complaints from a prospective study of 1,064,004 men and women. Am J Public Health 1964; 54: 11-23
32. Simon GE, VonKorff M, Piccinelli M, et al. An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1329-35
33. Leznoff A. Provocative challenges in patients with multiple chemical sensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 99: 438-42
34. Simon GE, VonKorff M. Somatization and psychiatric disorder in the NIMH epidemiologic catchment area study. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 1494-500
35. Selner JC, Staudenmayer H. The relationship of the environment and food to allergic and psychiatric illness. In: Young SH, Rubin JM, Daman HR, editors. Psychophysiological aspects of allergic disorders. New York: Praeger, 1986: 102-46
36. Bornschein S, Hausteiner C, Zilker T, et al. Psychiatric and somatic disorders and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) in 264 'environmental patients'. Psychol Med 2002; 32: 1387-94
37. Moorhead JF, Suruda AJ. Occipital lobe meningioma in a patient with multiple chemical sensitivities. Am J Ind Med 2000; 37: 443-6
38. Escobar JI, Hoyos-Nervi C, Gara M. Medically unexplained physical symptoms in medical practice: a psychiatric perspective. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 631-6
39. Bass C, Benjamin S. The management of chronic somatization. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 472-80
40. Kellner R. Somatization theories and research. J Nerv Ment Dis 1990; 178: 150-60
41. Pennebaker JW. Psychological bases of symptom reporting: perceptual and emotional aspects of chemical sensitivity. Toxicol Ind Health 1994; 10: 497-511
42. Barsky AJ, Klerman GL. Overview: hypochondriasis, bodily complaints, and somatic styles. Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140: 273-83
43. Barsky AJ, Borus JF. Somatization and medicalization in the era of managed care. JAMA 1995; 274: 1931-4
44. Stewart DE. The changing faces of somatization. Psychosomatics 1990; 31: 153-8
45. Shorter E. From paralysis to fatigue: a history of psychosomatic illness in the modern era. New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1992
46. Wessely S. Old wine in new bottles: neurasthenia and 'ME'. Psychol Med 1990; 20: 35-53
47. Wessely S. Chronic fatigue syndrome: a 20th century illness. Scand J Work Environ Health 1997; 23 Suppl. 3: 17-34
48. Barsky AJ, Borus JF. Functional somatic syndromes. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 910-21
49. Hadler NM. Fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue, and other iatrogenic diagnostic algorithms. Postgrad Med 1997; 102: 161-7
50. Buchwald D, Garrity D. Comparison of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and multiple 1 chemical sensitivities. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 2049-53
51. Rea WJ. Chemical sensitivity: clinical manifestations of pollutant overload. Vol. 3. Boca Raton (FL): Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, 1995
52. Schaumburg HH, Spencer PS, Ludolph AC, editors. Experimental and clinical neurotoxicology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000
53. Rosenberg NL, editor. Occupational and environmental neurology. Newton (MA): Butterworth-Heineman, 1995
54. Bardana EJ. Sick building syndrome: a wolf in sheep's clothing. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1997; 79: 283-93
55. Ooi PL, Goh KT. Sick building syndrome: an emerging stress-related disorder. Int J Epidemiol 1997; 26: 1243-9
56. Hodgson MJ. Indoor environmental exposures and symptoms. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 663-7
57. Christopher KL, Wood RP, Eckert RC, et al. Vocal-cord dysfunction presenting as asthma. N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 1566-70
58. Selner JC, Staudenmayer H, Koepke JW, et al. Vocal cord dysfunction: the importance of psychologic factors and provocation challenge testing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1987; 79: 726-33
59. Perkner JJ, Fennelly KP, Balkissoon R, et al. Irritant-associated vocal cord dysfunction. J Occup Environ Med 1998; 40: 136-43
60. Brooks SM, Weiss MA, Bernstein IL. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS): persistent asthma syndrome after high level irritant exposures. Chest 1985; 88: 376-84
61. Brooks SM, Hammad Y, Richards I, et al. The spectrum of irritant-induced asthma: sudden and not-so-sudden onset and the role of allergy. Chest 1998; 113: 42-9
62. Bardana EJ. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS): guidelines for diagnosis and treatment and insight into likely prognosis. Ann Asthma Allergy Immunol 1999; 83: 583-6
63. Ross PM, Whysner J, Covello VT, et al. Olfaction and symptoms in multiple chemical sensitivities syndrome. Prev Med 1999; 28: 467-80
64. Meggs WJ. Neurogenic inflammation and sensitivity to environmental chemicals. Environ Health Perspect 1993; 101: 234-8
65. Demitrack MA, Abbey SE. Chronic fatigue syndrome: an interactive approach to evaluation and treatment. New York: Guilford Press, 1996
66. Natelson BH, Lange G. A status report on chronic fatigue syndrome. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 673-7
67. Epstein SA, Kay G, Clauw D, et al. Psychiatric disorders in patients with fibromyalgia: a multicenter investigation. Psychosomatics 1999; 40: 57-63
68. Winfield JB. Pain in fibromyalgia. Rheumatol Clin North Am 1999; 25: 55-79
69. Drossman DA, Leserman J, Nachman G, et al. Sexual and physical abuse in women with functional or organic gastrointestinal disorders. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 828-33
70. Drossman DA, McKee DC, Sandler RS, et al. Psychosocial factors in the irritable bowel syndrome: a multivariate study of patients and nonpatients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 701-8
71. Kroenke K, Koslowe P, Roy M. Symptoms in 18,495 Persian Gulf war veterans. J Occup Environ Med 1998; 40: 520-8
72. Roy MJ. Environmental influences on illnesses in Persian Gulf war veterans. In: Lundberg A, editor. The environment and mental health. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998: 67-82
73. Black DW, Doebbeling BN, Voelker MD, et al. Multiple chemical sensitivity: symptom prevalence and risk factors in a military population. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1169-76
74. Skapinakis P, Lewis G, Venetsanos M. Unexplained fatigue syndromes in a multinational primary care sample: specificity of definition and prevalence and distinctiveness from depression and generalized anxiety. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 785-7
75. Stewart DE, Raskin J. Psychiatric assessment of patients with '20th century disease' ('total allergy syndrome'). CMAJ 1985; 133: 1001-6
76. Simon GE, Katon WJ, Sparks PJ. Allergic to life: psychological factors in environmental illness. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147: 901-6
77. Fiedler N, Kipen H. Chemical sensitivity: the scientific literature. Environ Health Perspect 1997; 105 Suppl. 2: 409-15
78. Selner JC. Chamber challenges: the necessity of objective observation. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996; 24: S87-95
79. Weiss B. Experimental strategies for research on multiple chemical sensitivity. Environ Health Perspect 1997; 105 Suppl. 2: 487-94
80. International Programme on Chemical Safety/World Health Organization (IPCS/WHO). Conclusions and recommendations of a workshop on multiple chemical sensitivities (MCS). Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996; 24: S188-9
81. Graveling RA, Pilkington A, George JP. A review of multiple chemical sensitivity. Occup Environ Med 1999; 56: 73-85
82. Pearson DJ, Rix KJ, Bentley SJ. Food allergy: how much in the mind?: a clinical and psychiatric study of suspected food hypersensitivity. Lancet 1983; I (8336): 1259-61
83. Rix KJ, Pearson DJ, Bentley SJ. A psychiatric study of patients with supposed food allergy. Br J Psychiatry 1984; 145: 121-6
84. Parker SL, Leznoff A, Sussman GL, et al. Characteristics of patients with food-related complaints. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990; 86: 503-11
85. Jewett DL, Fein G, Greenberg MH. A double-blind study of symptom provocation to determine food sensitivity. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 429-33
86. Staudenmayer H, Selner JC, Buhr M. Double-blind provocation challenges in 20 patients presenting with 'multiple chemical sensitivity'. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1993; 18: 44-53
87. Hummel T, Roscher S, Jaumann MP, et al. Intranasal chemoreception in patients with multiple chemical sensitivity: a double-blind investigation. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996; 24: S79-86
88. Dalton P. Cognitive influences on health symptoms from acute chemical exposure. Health Psychol 1999; 18: 579-90
89. Dalton P, Hummel T. Chemosensory function and response in idiopathic environmental intolerance. Occup Med 2000; 15: 539-56
90. Andersson B, Berg M, Arnetz BB, et al. A cognitive-behavioral treatment of patients suffering from 'electric hypersensitivity'. J Occup Environ Med 1996; 38: 752-8
91. Flodin U, Seneby A, Tegenfeldt C. Provocation of electrical hypersensitivity under everyday conditions. Scand J Work Environ Health 2000; 26: 93-8
92. Bolla-Wilson K, Wilson RJ, Bleeker ML. Conditioning of physical symptoms after neurotoxic exposure. J Occup Med 1988; 30: 684-6
93. Spyker DA. Multiple chemical sensitivities: syndrome and solution. Clin Toxicol 1995; 33: 95-9
94. Giardino ND, Lehrer PM. Behavioral conditioning and idiopathic environmental intolerance. Occup Med 2000; 15: 519-28
95. Sullivan Jr JB, Krieger GR. Hazardous materials toxicology: clinical principles of environmental health. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1992
96. Binkley KE, Kutcher S. Panic response to sodium lactate infusion in patients with multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 99: 570-4
97. Poonai N, Anthony MM, Binkley KE, et al. Carbon dioxide inhalation challenges in idiopathic environmental intolerance. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 105: 358-63
98. Sinha S, Papp LA, Gorman JM. How study of respiratory physiology aided our understanding of abnormal brain function in panic disorder. J Affect Disord 2000; 61: 191-200
99. Selner JC, Staudenmayer H. Neuropsychophysiologic observations in patients presenting with environmental illness. Toxicol Ind Health 1992; 8: 145-55
100. Rosenberg SJ, Freedman MR, Schmaling KG, et al. Personality styles of patients asserting environmental illness. J Occup Med 1990; 32: 678-81
101. Schmidt LA, Fox NA, Schulkin J, et al. Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Dev Psychobiol 1999; 35: 119-35
102. Arbelle S, Benjamin J, Golin M, et al. Relation of shyness in grade school children to the genotype for the long form of the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 671-6
103. Bell IR. Neuropsychiatric aspects of sensitivity to low-level chemicals: a neural sensitization model. Toxicol Ind Health 1994; 10: 277-312
104. Binkley K, King N, Poonai N, et al. Idiopathic environmental intolerance; Increased prevalence of panic disorder-associated cholecystokinin B receptor allele 7. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 107: 887-90
105. Knutson JF. Physical and sexual abuse of children. In: Rauth DK, editor. Handbook of pediatric psychology. New York: Guilford, 1988: 32-70
106. Green AH. Physical and sexual abuse of children. In: Kaplan HI, Sadeck BI, editors. Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. Vol 2. 5th ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams and Wilkins, 1989: 1962-70
107. Shengold L. Soul murder: the effects of childhood abuse and deprivation. New York: Ballantine Books, 1989
108. Loewenstein RJ. Somatoform disorders in victims of incest and child abuse. In: Kluft RP, editor. Incest related syndromes of adult psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1990: 75-111
109. Briere J. Medical symptoms, health risk, and history of childhood sexual abuse. Mayo Clin Proc 1992; 67: 527-32
110. Benjamin S, Eminson DM. Abnormal illness behavior: childhood experiences and long-term consequences. Int Rev Psychiatry 1992; 4: 55-70
111. Norris FH. Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. J Consult Clin Psychol 1992; 60: 409-18
112. Springs FE, Friedrich WN. Health risk behaviors and medical sequelae of childhood sexual abuse. Mayo Clin Proc 1992; 67: 527-33
113. DeBellis MD, Putman FW. The psychobiology of childhood maltreatment. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin North Am 1994; 3: 663-78
114. Schwarz ED, Perry BD. The post-traumatic response in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1994; 17: 311-26
115. Silk KR, editor. Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1994
116. Dancu CV, Riggs DS, Hearst-Ikeda DE, et al. Dissociative experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder among female victims of criminal assault and rape. J Trauma Stress 1996; 9: 253-67
117. Draijer N, Langeland W. Childhood trauma and perceived parental dysfunction in the etiology of dissociative symptoms in psychiatric patients. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 379-85
118. Heim C, Newport DH, Heit S, et al. Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. JAMA 2000; 284: 592-7
119. MacMillan HL, Fleming JE, Streiner DL, et al. Childhood abuse and lifetime psychopathology in a community sample. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1878-83
120. Arnow BA, Hart S, Scott C, et al. Childhood sexual abuse, psychological distress, and medical use among women. Psychosom Med 1999; 61: 762-70
121. Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg DF, et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am J Prev Med 1998; 14: 248-58
122. Edwards VJ, Holden GW, Felitti VJ, et al. Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: results from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 1453-60
123. Vythilingam M, Heim C, Newport J, et al. Childhood trauma associated with smaller hippocampal volume in women with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 2072-80
124. Pribor EF, Yurzy SH, Dean JT, et al. Briquet's syndrome, dissociation, and abuse. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 1507-11
125. Barsky AJ, Wool C, Barnett MC, et al. Histories of childhood trauma in adult hypochondriacal patients. Am J Psychoanal 1994; 151: 397-401
126. Morrison J. Childhood sexual histories of women with somatization disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146: 239-41
127. Walker E, Katon WJ, Hanson J, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses and sexual victimization in women with chronic pelvic pain. Psychosomatics 1995; 36: 531-40
128. Blair JA, Blair RS, Rueckert P. Pre-injury emotional trauma and chronic back pain. Spine 1994; 19: 1144-7
129. Drossman DA. Physical and sexual abuse and gastrointestinal illness: what is the link? Am J Med 1994; 97: 105-7
130. Scarinci IC, McDonald-Haile J, Bradley LA, et al. Altered pain perception and psychosocial features among women with gastrointestinal disorders and history of abuse: a preliminary model. Am J Med 1994; 97: 108-18
131. Hudson JL, Pope Jr HG. Does childhood sexual abuse cause fibromyalgia? Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 161-3
132. Aaron LA, Bradley LA, Alarcon GS, et al. Perceived physical and emotional trauma as precipitating events in fibromyalgia: associations with health care and disability status but not pain severity. Arthritis Rheum 1997; 40: 453-60
133. Staudenmayer H, Selner ME, Selner JC. Adult sequelae of childhood abuse presenting as environmental illness. Ann Allergy 1993; 71: 538-46
134. Brown TM, Merritt WD, Evans DL. Psychogenic vocal cord dysfunction masquerading as asthma. J Nerv Ment Dis 1988; 176: 308-10
135. Freedman MR, Rosenberg SJ, Schmaling KB. Childhood sexual abuse in patients with paradoxical vocal cord dysfunction. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991; 179: 295-8
136. True WR, Rice J, Eisen SA, et al. A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 257-64
137. Stein-MB, Jang KL, Taylor S, et al. Genetic and environmental influences of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1675-81
138. Lyons MJ, Goldberg J, Eisen SA, et al. Do genes influence exposure to trauma: a twin study of combat. Am J Med Genet 1993; 48: 22-7
139. Koenen KC, Harley R, Lyons MJ, et al. A twin registry study of familial and individual risk factors for trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 2002; 190: 209-18
140. Green BL, Grace MC, Lindy JD, et al. Risk factors for PTSD and other diagnoses in a general sample of Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147: 729-33
141. Goldberg J, True WR, Eisen SA, et al. A twin study of the effects of the Vietnam War on posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA 1990; 263: 1227-32
142. King DW, King LA, Foy D, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans; risk factors, war-zone stressors, and resilience-recovery variables. J Abnorm Psychol 2000; 108: 164-70
143. Wolfe J, Erickson DJH, Sharkansky EJ, et al. Course and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder among Gulf War veterans: a prospective analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000; 67: 520-8
144. Prigerson HG, Maciejewski PK, Rosenheck RA. Combat trauma: trauma with highest risk of delayed onset and unresolved posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, unemployment, and abuse among men. J Nerv Ment Dis 2001; 189: 99-108
145. Bromet E, Sonnega A, Kessler RC. Risk factors for DSM-III-R posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147: 353-61
146. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, et al. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 626-32
147. Creamer M, Burgess P, McFarlane AC. Posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Psychol Med 2001; 31: 1237-47
148. Christenson RM, Walker JI, Ross DR, et al. Reactivation of traumatic conflicts. Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138: 984-5
149. Resnick HS, Yehuda R, Pitman RK, et al. Effect of previous trauma on acute plasma cortisol level following rape. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1675-7
150. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, et al. MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 924-32
151. Frodl T, Meisenzahl EM, Zetzsche T, et al. Hippocampal changes in patients with a first episode of major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159: 1112-8
152. Shusterman D, Balmes J, Cone J. Behavioral sensitization to irritants/odorants after acute over exposures. J Occup Med 1988; 30: 565-7
153. Van den Bergh O, Stegen K, Van de Woestijne KP. Learning to have psychosomatic complaints: conditioning of respiratory behavior and somatic complaints in psychosomatic patients. Psychosom Med 1997; 59: 13-23
154. Van den Bergh O, Stegen K, Van Dest I, et al. Acquisition and extinction of somatic symptoms in response to odors: a Pavlovian paradigm relevant to multiple chemical sensitivity. Occup Environ Med 1999; 56: 295-301
155. Devriese S, Winters W, Stegen K, et al. Generalization of acquired somatic symptoms in response to odors: a Pavlovian perspective on multiple chemical sensitivity. Psychosom Med 2000; 62: 751-9
156. Rescorla RA. Pavlovian conditioning: it is not what you think it is. Am Psychol 1988; 43: 151-60
157. Staudenmayer H. Multiple chemical sensitivities or idiopathic environmental intolerances (EI): psychophysiological foundation of knowledge for a psychogenic explanation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 99: 434-7
158. Kandel ER, Hawkins RD. The biological basis of learning and individuality. Sci Am 1992 Sep; 267 (3): 79-86
159. Stegen K, De Brunye K, Rasschaert W, et al. Fear-relevant images as conditioned stimuli for somatic complaints, respiratory behavior, and reduced end-tidal pCO2. J Abnorm Psychol 1999; 108: 143-52
160. Van den Bergh O, Devriese S, Winters W, et al. Acquiring symptoms in response to odors: a learning perspective on multiple chemical sensitivity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 933: 278-90
161. Jones TF, Graig AS, Hoy D, et al. Mass psychogenic illness attributed to toxic exposure at a high school. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 96-100
162. Hodgson MJ, Frohliger J, Permar E, et al. Symptoms and microenvironmental measures in non-problem buildings. J Occup Med 1991; 33: 527-33
163. Cahill L, Prins B, Weber M, et al. Beta-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 1994; 371: 702-4
164. Kolb LC. Neurophysiological hypothesis explaining posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 989-95
165. Liotti M, Sava D, Rizzolatti G, et al. Differential hemispheric asymmetries in depression and anxiety: a reaction time study. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 887-99
166. Cohen RA, O'Donnell BF. Physiological substrates of attention. In: Cohen RA, editor. The neuropsychology of attention. New York: Plenum, 1993: 115-44
167. Guidano VF, Liotti G. Cognitive Processes and emotional disorders. New York: Guilford Press, 1983
168. Mayberg HS, Liotti M, Brannan SK, et al. Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 675-82
169. Brewin CR, Andrews B, Gotlib IH. Psychopathology and early experience: a reappraisal of retrospective reports. Psychol Bull 1993; 113: 82-98
170. Halligan SL, Michael T, Clark M, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: the role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. J Consul Clin Psychol 2003; 71: 419-31
171. Van der Kolk BA. The body keeps score. In: van der Kolk BA, McFarlane AC, Weisaeth L, editors. Traumatic stress. New York: Guilford Press, 1996: 279-302
172. Terr LC. What happens to early memories of trauma. J Am Acad Child Adolescent Psychiatry 1988; 1: 96-104
173. Teicher MH, Ito Y, Glod CA, et al. Early abuse, limbic system dysfunction, and borderline personality disorder. In: Silk KR, editor. Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1994: 177-207
174. Van der Kolk BA. The body keeps score: approaches to the psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. In: van der Kolk BA, McFarlane AC, Weisaeth L, editors. Traumatic stress. New York: Guilford Press, 1996: 214-41
175. Shusterman D. Critical review: the health significance of environmental odor pollution. Arch Environ Health 1992; 47: 76-87
176. Shusterman D. Review of the upper airway, including olfaction, as mediator of symptoms. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 Suppl. 4: 649-53
177. Shusterman D, Dager S. Prevention of psychological disability after occupational respiratory exposures. Occup Med 1991; 6: 11-27
178. Shusterman D, Lipscomb J, Neutra R, et al. Symptom prevalence and odor-worry interaction near hazardous waste sites. Environ Health Perspect 1991; 94: 25-30
179. Larkin M. Sniffing out memories of holidays past. Lancet 1999; 354: 2142
180. Van der Kolk BA. The trauma spectrum: the interaction of biological and social events in genesis of the trauma response. J Trauma Stress 1988; 1: 273-90
181. Chrousos GP, Gold PW. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders: overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA 1992; 267: 1244-52
182. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, McEwen BS. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev 1986: 7: 284-301
183. Sapolsky RM. Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press, 1992
184. Sapolsky RM. Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 1996; 273: 749-50
185. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 925-35
186. Rutter M. Psychopathology and development: I. childhood antecedents of adult psychiatric disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1984; 18: 225-34
187. Blanchard EB, Kolb LC, Pallmeyer TP, et al. A psychophysiological study of post traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Psychiatr Q 1982; 54: 220-9
188. Pitman RK, Orr SP, Forgue DF, et al. Psychophysiologic assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in Vietnam combat veterans. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 970-5
189. Lautenbacher S, Spernal J, Schreiber W, et al. Relationship between clinical pain complaints and pain sensitivity in patients with depression and panic disorder. Psychosom Med 1999; 61: 822-7
190. Clauw DJ, Chrousos GP. Chronic pain and fatigue syndromes: overlapping clinical an neuroendocrine features and potential pathogenic mechanisms. Neuroimmunomodulation 1997; 4: 134-53
191. Chrousos GP. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1351-62
192. Jewett DL. Diagnosis and treatment of hypersensitivity syndrome. Toxicol Ind Health 1992; 8: 111-23
193. Yehuda R. Stress and glucocorticoids. Science 1997; 275: 1662
194. Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 975-90
195. Bowlby J. The making and breaking of affectional bonds: aetiology and psychopathology in the light of attachment theory. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 130: 201-10
196. Schore AN. Affect regulation and the origin of the self: the neurobiology of emotional development. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Lawrence Earlbaum, 1994
197. Krystal JH, Bennett AL, Bremner JD, et al. Toward a cognitive science of dissociation and altered mental function in posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Friedman MJ, Charney DS, Deutch AY, editors. Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: from normal adaptation to post-traumatic stress disorder. Hagerstown (MD): Lipincott-Raven, 1995: 239-69
198. Widom CS. Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1223-9
199. Yehuda R, McFarlane AC, editors. Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997, 821
200. Shors TJ. Stress and memory. In: Squire LR, editor. Encyclopedia of learning and memory. New York: Macmillan, 1992: 608-10
201. McEwen B, Sapolsky R. Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995: 5: 205-11
202. McEwen BS. Effects of adverse experiences for brain structure and function. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 721-31
203. Hull AM. Neuroimaging findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 102-10
204. Staudenmayer H. Psychological treatment of psychogenic idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI). Occup Med 2000; 15: 627-46
205. Bolla KI. Neurobehavioral performance in multiple chemical sensitivities. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996; 24: S52-4
206. Fiedler N, Kipen HM, Deluca J, et al. A controlled comparison of multiple chemical sensitivities and chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychosom Med 1996; 58: 38-49
207. Brown-DeGagne AM, McGlone J. Multiple chemical sensitivity: a test of the olfactory-limbic model. J Occup Environ Med 1999; 41: 366-77
208. Bolla KI. Use of neuropsychological testing in idiopathic environmental testing. Occup Med 2000; 15: 617-25
209. Lees-Haley PR, Brown RS. Biases in perception and reporting following a perceived toxic exposure. Perceptual Motor Skills 1992; 75: 531-44
210. Poonai NP, Antony MM, Binkley KE, et al. Psychological features of patients with idiopathic environmental intolerance. J Psychosom Res 2001; 51: 537-41
211. Stenn PG, Binkley K. Multiple chemical sensitivity. Psychosomatics 1998; 39: 393-4
212. Staudenmayer H, Kramer RE. Psychogenic chemical sensitivity: psychogenic pseudoseizures elicited by provocation challenges with fragrances. J Psychosom Res 1999; 47: 185-90
213. Haller E. Successful management of patients with 'multiple chemical sensitivity' on an inpatient psychiatric unit. J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 196-9
214. Amundsen MA, Hanson NP, Bruce BK, et al. Odor aversion of multiple chemical sensitivities: recommendation for a name change and description of successful behavioral medicine treatment. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996: 24: S116-8
215. Guglielmi RS, Cox DJ, Spyker DA. Behavioral treatment of phobic avoidance in multiple chemical sensitivity. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 1994; 25: 197-209
216. Binkley KE, Stenn PG. 'Specialized' psychiatric referral: improved outcome in patients with multiple chemical sensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 101 Suppl.: 587
217. Stenn P, Binkley K. Successful outcome in a patient with chemical sensitivity: treatment with psychological desensitization and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Psychosomatics 1998; 39: 547-50
218. Hillert L, Kolmodin HB, Dolling BF, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for patients with electric sensitivity: a multidisciplinary approach in a controlled study. Psychother Psychosom 1998; 67: 302-10
219. Gomez R, Schvaneveldt RW, Staudenmayer H. Assessing beliefs about 'environmental illness/multiple chemical sensitivity'. J Health Psychol 1996; 1: 107-23
220. Black DW, Sparks PJ. Psychiatric aspects of 'chemical sensitivity' syndromes. In: Stoudemire A, Vogel B, editors. Medical psychiatric practice. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1995: 347-80
221. Brodsky CM. 'Allergic to everything': a medical subculture. Psychosomatics 1983; 24: 731-42
222. Gupta K, Perharic L, Volans GN, et al. Apparent poisoning by wood preservatives: an attributional syndrome. J Psychosom Res 1997; 43: 391-8
223. Black DW. Iatrogenic (physician-induced) hypochondriasis: four patient examples of 'chemical sensitivity'. Psychosomatics 1996; 37: 390-3
224. Black DW, Okiishi C, Schlosser S. A nine-year follow-up of people diagnosed with multiple chemical sensitivities. Psychosomatics 2000; 41: 253-61
225. Gibson PR, Elms AN, Ruding LA. Perceived treatment efficacy for conventional and alternative therapies reported by persons with multiple chemical sensitivity. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 1498-504
226. Staudenmayer H. Clinical consequences of the EI/MCS 'diagnosis': two paths. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 1996; 24: S96-S110
227. Bentall RP, Powell P, Nye FJ, et al. Predictors of response to treatment for chronic fatigue syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 248-52
228. Busch FN, Cooper AM, Klerman GL, et al. Neurophysiological, cognitive-behavioral, and psychoanalytic approaches to panic disorder: toward an integration. Psychoanalytic Inquiry 1991; 11: 316-32
229. Shear MK, Cooper AM, Klerman GL, et al. A psychodynamic model of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 859-66
230. Shear MK. Factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of panic disorder: revisiting the attachment-separation paradigm. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 125-36
231. Shorter E. Multiple chemical sensitivity: pseudodisease in historical perspective. Scand J Work Environ Health 1997; 23 Suppl. 3: 35-42
232. Ford CV. Somatization and fashionable diagnoses: illness as a way of life. Scand J Work Environ Health 1997; 23 Suppl. 3: 7-16