The evolution and functions of laughter and humor: A synthetic approach

Quarterly Review of Biology

Volumn 80, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 395-430

  Gervais, Matthew ^a   Wilson, David Sloan ^a  

^a BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Contagion; Coordination; Duchenne; Emotional expression; Evolutionary psychology; Humor; Joy; Language; Laughter; Mirror neurons; Multilevel selection; Nonverbal communication; Play; Positive psychology; SMA; Social neuroscience; Theory of mind

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; CULTURAL FACTOR; EVOLUTION; HUMAN; HUMOR; NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION; REVIEW; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; THEORETICAL MODEL;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS; EVOLUTION; HUMANS; LAUGHTER; MODELS, THEORETICAL; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; WIT AND HUMOR;

HOMINIDAE; MYA; PRIMATES;

EID: 31544481179     PISSN: 00335770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/498281     Document Type: Review

References (186)

1. Adolphs R. 2003. Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4:165-178.
2. Aiello L C. 1996. Terrestriality, bipedalism and the origin of language. Pages 269-289 in Evolution of Social Behaviour Patterns in Primates and Man: A Joint Discussion Meeting of the Royal Society and the British Academy, edited by W G Runciman, J Maynard Smith, and R I M Dunbar. New York: Oxford University Press.
3. Anderson J R, Myowa-Yamakoshi M, Matsuzawa T. 2004. Contagious yawning in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271 (Supplement):S468-S470.
4. Apte M L. 1985. Humor and Laughter: An Anthropological Approach. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press.
5. Bachorowski J-A, Owren M J. 2001. Not all laughs are alike: voiced but not unvoiced laughter readily elicits positive affect. Psychological Science 12:252-257.
6. Bachorowski J-A, Owren M J. 2003. Sounds of emotion: production and perception of affect- related vocal acoustics. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1000:244-265.
7. Bachorowski J-A, Smoski MJ, Owren MJ. 2001. The acoustic features of human laughter. Journal of Acoustical Society of America 110:1581-1597.
8. Baenninger R. 1997. On yawning and its functions. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 4:198-207.
9. Banning M R, Nelson D L. 1987. The effects of activity-elicited humor and group structure on group cohesion and affective responses. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 41:510-514.
10. Baron-Cohen S. 1999. The evolution of a theory of mind. Pages 261-277 in The Descent of Mind: Psychological Perspectives on Hominid Evolution, edited by M C Corballis and S E G Lea. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
11. Bekoff M. 1995. Play signals as punctuation: the structure of social play in canids. Behaviour 132:419-429.
12. Bekoff M. 2001. Social play behaviour: cooperation, fairness, trust, and the evolution of morality. Journal of Consciousness Studies 8:81-90.
13. Biben M, Champoux M. 1999. Play and stress: cortisol as a negative correlate of play in Saimiri. Play Culture Studies 2:191-208.
14. Bjorklund D F, Pellegrini A D. 2002. The Origins of Human Nature: Evolutionary Developmental Psychology. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association.
15. Boehm C. 1999. Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
16. Boyd R, Richerson P J. 1985. Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.
17. Buck R, Ginsburg B. 1991. Spontaneous communication and altruism: the communicative gene hypothesis. Pages 149-175 in Prosocial Behavior: Review of Personality and Social Psychology, Volume 12, edited by M S Clark. Newbury Park (CA): Sage Publications.
18. Buck R, VanLear C A. 2002. Verbal and nonverbal communication: distinguishing symbolic, spontaneous, and pseudo-spontaneous nonverbal behavior. Journal of Communication 52:522-541.
19. Burling R. 1993. Primate calls, human language, and nonverbal communication. Current Anthropology 34:25-53.
20. Butcher J, Whissell C. 1984. Laughter as a function of audience size, sex of the audience, and segments of the short film "Duck Soup." Perceptual and Motor Skills: 59:949-950.
21. Byers J A, Walker C. 1995. Refining the motor training hypothesis for the evolution of play. American Naturalist 146:25-40.
22. Caron J E. 2002. From ethology to aesthetics: evolution as a theoretical paradigm for research on laughter, humor, and other comic phenomena. Humor 15:245-281.
23. Carr L, Iacoboni M, Dubeau M-C, Mazziotta J C, Lenzi G L. 2003. Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems of imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100:5497-5502.
24. Chapman A J. 1983. Humor and laughter in social interaction and some implications for humor research. Pages 135-157 in Handbook of Humor Research, Volume 1: Basic Issues, edited by P E McGhee and J H Goldstein. New York: Springer-Verlag.
25. Chartrand T L, Bargh J A. 1999. The chameleon effect: the perception-behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76:893-910.
26. Cosmides L, Tooby J. 1997. Evolutionary psychology: a primer. http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html.
27. Cosmides L, Tooby J. 2000. Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. Pages 91-115 in Handbook of Emotions, Second Edition, edited by M Lewis and J M Haviland-Jones. New York: The Guilford Press.
28. Damasio A R. 1994. Descarte's Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Putman.
29. Darwin C. 1872. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John Murray. [Reprint. 1972. New York: AMS Press.]
30. de Oliveira C R, Ruiz-Miranda C R, Kleiman D G, Beck B B. 2003. Play behavior in juvenile golden lion tamerins (Callitrichidae: Primates): organization in relation to costs. Ethology 109:593-612.
31. Deacon T. 1992. The neural circuitry underlying primate calls and human language. Pages 121-162 in Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by J Wind, B Chiarelli, B Bichakjian, and A Nocentini. Dordrecht (The Netherlands) and Boston (MA): Kluwer Academic Publishers.
32. Deacon T W. 1997. The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York: W W Norton.
33. Devereux P G, Ginsburg G P. 2001. Sociality effects on the production of laughter. Journal of General Psychology 128:227-240.
34. Donaldson T M, Newberry R C, Spinka M, Cloutier, S. 2002. Effects of early play experience on play behaviour of piglets after weaning. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 79:221-231.
35. Drea C M, Hawk J E, Glickman S E. 1996. Aggression decreases as play emerges in infam spotted hyaenas: preparation for joining the clan. Animal Behaviour 51:1323-1336.
36. Dugatkin L A, Reeve H K. 1994. Behavioral ecology and levels of selection: dissolving the group selection controversy. Pages 101-133 in Advances in the Study of Behavior, Volume 23, edited by P J B Slater, J S Rosenblatt, C T Snowdon, and M Milinski. San Diego (CA): Academic Press.
37. Dunbar R I M. 1993. Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:681-694.
38. Dunbar R I M. 1996. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
39. Edmonson M S. 1983. Notes on laughter. Anthropological Linguistics 29:23-33.
40. Eibl-Eibesfeldt I. 1989. Human Ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
41. Ekman P. 1999. Basic emotions. Pages 45-60 in Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, edited by T Dalgleish and M Power. New York: Wiley.
42. Fadiga L, Craighero L, Buccino G, Rizzolatti G. 2002. Short communication: speech listening specifically modulates the excitability of tongue muscles: a TMS study. European Journal of Neuroscience 15:399-402.
43. Fagen R. 1993. Primate juveniles and primate play. Pages 182-196 in Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior, edited by M E Pereira and L A Fairbanks. New York: Oxford University Press.
44. Fagen R, Fagen J. 2004. Juvenile survival and benefits of play behaviour in blown bears, Ursus arctos. Evolutionary Ecology Research 6:89-102.
45. Ferrari P F, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G, Fogassi L. 2003. Mirror neurons responding to the observation of ingestive and communicative mouth actions in the monkey ventral premolor cortex. European Journal of Neuroscience 17:1703-1714.
46. Fitch W T. 2000. The evolution of speech: a comparative review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4:258-267.
47. Flack J C, Jeannotte L A, de Waal F B M. 2004. Play signaling and the perception of social rules by juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology 118:149-159.
48. Fogel A, Dickson K L, Hsu H, Messinger D, Nelson-Goens G C, Nwokah E. 1997. Communication of smiling and laughter in mother-infant play: research on emotion from a dynamic systems perspective. Pages 5-24 in The Communication of Emotion: Current Research from Diverse Perspectives, edited by K C Barrett. San Francisco (CA): Jossey-Bass Publishers.
49. Foley R A. 1996. An evolutionary and chronological framework for human social behaviour. Pages 95-117 in Evolution of Social Behaviour Patterns in Primates and Man: A Joint Discussion Meeting of the Royal Society and the British Academy, edited by W G Runciman, J Maynard Smith, and R I M Dunbar. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
50. Foley R A. 1999. Hominid behavioural evolution: missing links in comparative primate socioecology. Pages 363-386 in Comparative Primate Socioecology edited by P C Lee. New York: Cambridge University Press.
51. Frank S A. 1995. George Price's contributions to evolutionary genetics. Journal of Theoretical Biology 175:373-388.
52. Fredrickson B L. 1998. What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology 2:300-319.
53. Fridlund A J, Loftis J M. 1990. Relations between tickling and humorous laughter: preliminary support for the Darwin-Hecker hypothesis. Biological Psychology 30:141-150.
54. Fried I, Wilson C L, MacDonald K A, Behnke E J. 1998. Electric current stimulates laughter. Nature 391:650.
55. Fry D P. 2005. Rough-and-tumble social play in humans. Pages 54-85 in The Nature of Play: Great Apes and Humans, edited by A D Pellegrini and P K Smith. New York: Guilford Press.
56. Fry W F. 1977. The appeasement function of mirthful laughter. Pages 23-26 in It's a Funny Thing, Humour, edited by A J Chapman and H C Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.
57. Fry W F. 1994. The biology of humor. Humor 7:111-126.
58. Fry W F. 2002. Humor and the brain: a selective review. Humor 15:305-333.
59. Führ M. 2002. Coping humor in early adolescence. Humor 15:283-304.
60. Gallese V. 2003. The roots of empathy: the shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology 36:171-180.
61. Gamble J. 2001. Humor in apes. Humor 14:163-179.
62. Gazzaniga M S, Smylie C S. 1990. Hemispheric mechanisms controlling voluntary and spontaneous facial expressions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2:239-245.
63. Goel V, Dolan R J. 2001. The functional anatomy of humor: segregating cognitive and affective components. Nature Neuroscience 4:237-238.
64. Goldman A I, Sripada C S. 2005. Simulationist models of face-based emotion recognition. Cognition 94:193-213.
65. Goodson F E. 2003. The Evolution and Function of Cognition. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
66. Gould S J, Vrba E S. 1982. Exaptation: a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4-15.
67. Grammer K. 1990. Strangers meet: laughter and non-verbal signs of interest in opposite-sex encounters. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 14:209-236.
68. Grammer K, Eibl-Eibesfeldt I. 1990. The ritualization of laughter. Pages 192-214 in Natürlichkeit der Sprache und der Kultur: Acta Colloquii, edited by W Koch. Bochum (Germany): Brockmeyer.
69. Greatbatch D, Clark T. 2003. Displaying group cohesiveness: humour and laughter in the public lectures of management gurus. Human Relations 56:1515-1544.
70. Guard H J, Newman J D, Roberts R L. 2002. Morphine administration selectively facilitates social play in common marmosets. Developmental Psychobiology 41:37-49.
71. Hammerstein P. 2003. Dahlem Workshop on Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation (90). Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
72. Harris C R. 1999. The mystery of ticklish laughter. American Scientist 87:344-352.
73. Hatfield E, Cacioppo J T, Rapson R L. 1994. Emotional Contagion. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
74. Hauser M D. 1996. The Evolution of Communication. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
75. Howe N E. 2002. The origin of humor. Medical Hypotheses 59:252-254.
76. Irons, W. 2001. Religion as a hard-to-fake sign of commitment. Pages 292-309 in Evolution and the Capacity for Commitment, edited by R Nesse. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
77. Iwase M, Ouchi Y, Okada H, Yokoyama C, Nobezawa S, et al. 2002. Neural substrates of human facial expression of pleasant emotion induced by comic films: a PET study. NeuroImage 17:758-768.
78. Jung W E. 2003. The inner eye theory of laughter: mindreader signals cooperator value. Evolutionary Psychology 1:214-253.
79. Jurmain R, Nelson H, Kilgore L, Trevathan W. 2000. Introduction to Physical Anthropology, Eighth Edition. Belmont (CA): Wadsworth.
80. Kalinowski J, Saltuklaroglu T. 2003. Choral speech: the amelioration of stuttering via imitation and the mirror neuronal system. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 27:339-347.
81. Keltner D, Bonanno G A. 1997. A study of laughter and dissociation: distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73:687-702.
82. Kipper S, Todt D. 2001. Variation of sound parameters affects the evaluation of human laughter. Behaviour 138:1161-1178.
83. Kipper S, Todt D. 2002. The use of vocal signals in the social play of Barbary macaques. Primates 43:3-17.
84. Kohler E, Keysers C, Umiltà M A, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G. 2002. Hearing sounds, understanding actions: action representation in mirror neurons. Science 297:846-48.
85. Kohler T A, Gumerman G J, editors. 2000. Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies: Agent- based Modeling of Social and Spatial Processes. New York: Oxford University Press.
86. Koski L, Iacoboni M, Dubeau M-C, Woods R P, Mazziotta J C. 2003. Modulation of cortical activity during different imitative behaviors. Journal of Neurophysiology 89:460-471.
87. Krebs J A, Dawkins R. 1984. Animal signals: mind-reading and manipulation. Pages 380-402 in Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, Second Edition, edited by J R Krebs and N B Davies. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates.
88. Kuiper N A, Martin R A. 1998. Laughter and stress in daily life: relation to positive and negative affect. Motivation and Emotion 22:133-153.
89. LaGreca S, Laforest M, Alioua A, Vincent D. 1996. Laughter as interaction strategy: discursive and phonetic aspects. Pages 313-332 in Sociolinguistic Variation: Data, Theory, and Analysis: Selected Papers from NWAV 23 at Stanford, edited by J Arnold. Stanford (CA): Center for the Study of Language and Information.
90. Lakin J L, Jefferis V E, Cheng C M, Chartrand T L. 2003. The chameleon effect as social glue: evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavioral 27:145-162.
91. Lefcourt R M. 2000. Humor: The Psychology of Living Buoyantly. New York: Plenum Publishers.
92. Leslie K R, Johnson-Frey S H, Grafton S T. 2004. Functional imaging of face and hand imitation: towards a motor theory of empathy. NeuroImage 21:601-607.
93. Levy S G, Fenley W F, Jr. 1979. Audience size and the likelihood and intensity of response during a humorous movie. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 13:409-412.
94. Liberman A M, Whalen D H. 2000. On the relation of speech to language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4:187-196.
95. Lloyd E A, Feldman M W. 2002. Evolutionary psychology: a view from evolutionary biology. Psychological Inquiry 13:150-156.
96. Martin R A, Kuiper N A. 1999. Daily occurence of laughter: relationships with age, gender, and Type A personality. Humor 12:355-384.
97. Maryanski A M, Molnar P, Segerstråle U, Velichkovsky B M. 1997. The social and biological foundations of human communication. Pages 181-200 in Human By Nature: Between Biology and the Social Sciences, edited by P Weingart, S D Mitchell, P J Richardson, and S Maasen. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
98. Matsusaka T. 2004. When does play panting occur during social play in wild chimpanzees? Primates 45:221-229.
99. McComas H C. 1923. The origin of laughter. Psychological Review 30:45-55.
100. McGhee P E. 1976. A model of the origins and early development of incongruity-based humour. Pages 27-36 in It's a Funny Thing, Humour, edited by A J Chapman and H C Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.
101. McGhee P E. 1979. Humor: Its Origin and Development. San Francisco (CA): W H Freeman.
102. McIntosh, D. N. 1996. Facial feedback hypotheses: Evidence, implications, and directions. Motivation and Emotion 20: 121-147.
103. Miller G. 2000. The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. New York: Anchor Books.
104. Mobbs D, Greicius M D, Abdel-Axim E, Menon V, Reiss A L. 2003. Humor modulates the mesolimbic reward centers. Neuron 40:1041-1048.
105. Moran J M, Wig G S, Adams R B, Jr, Janata P, Kelley W M. 2004. Neural correlates of humor detection and appreciation. NeuroImage 21:1055-1060.
106. Nesse R, editor. 2001. Evolution and the Capacity for Commitment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
107. Neuhoff C C, Schaefer C. 2002. Effects of laughing, smiling, and howling on mood. Psychological Reports 91:1079-1080.
108. Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H. 2003. An emotion-based facial expression word activates laughter module in the human brain: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience Letters 340:127-130.
109. Owren M J, Bachorowski J-A. 2001. The evolution of emotional expression: A "selfish gene" account of smiling and laughter in early hominids and humans. Pages 152-191 in Emotions: Current Issues and Future Directions, edited by T J Mayne and G A Bonanno. New York: Guilford Press
110. Owren M J, Bachorowski J-A. 2003. Reconsidering the evolution of nonlinguistic communication: the case of laughler. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:183-200.
111. Palagi E, Cordoni G, Borgognini Tarli S M. 2004. Immediate and delayed benefits of play behavior: new evidence from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Ethology 110:949-962.
112. Panksepp J. 1998. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. New York: Oxford University Press.
113. Panskeep J. 2000. The riddle of laughler: neural and psychoevolutionary underpinnings of joy. Current Directions in Psychological Science 9:183-186.
114. Panksepp J, Burgdorf J. 2003. "Laughing" rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?. Physiology and Behavior 79:533-547.
115. Panksepp J, Panksepp J B. 2000. The seven sins of evolutionary psychology. Evolution and Cognition 6:108-131.
116. Paquette D, Carbonneau R, Dubeau D, Bigras M, Tremblay R E. 2003. Prevalence of father-child rough-and-tumble play and physical aggression in preschool children. European Journal of Psychology of Education 18:171-189.
117. Parr L A. 2004. Perceptual biases for multimodal cues in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) affect recognition. Animal Cognition 7:171-178.
118. Parr L A, Hopkins W D. 2000. Brain temperature asymmetries and emotional perception in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Physiology and Behavior 71:363-371.
119. Pellis S M, Iwaniuk A N. 2000. Adult-adult play in primates: comparative analyses of its origin, distribution and evolution. Ethology 106:1083-1104.
120. Pellis S M, Pellis V C. 1996. On knowing it's only play: the role of play signals in play fighting. Aggression and Violent Behavior 1:249-268.
121. Pinker S. 1997. How the Mind Works. New York: W W Norton.
122. Platek S M, Mohamed F B, Gallup G G, Jr. 2005. Contagious yawning and the brain. Cognitive Brain Research 23:448-452.
123. Power C. 1998. Old wives' tales: the gossip hypothesis and the reliability of cheap signals. Pages 111-129 in Approaches to the Evolution of Language: Social and Cognitive Bases, edited by J R Hurford, M Studdert-Kennedy, and C Knight. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
124. Premack D, Woodruff G. 1978. Does the chimpanzee have a "theory of mind"? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:515-526.
125. Preston S D, de Waal F B M. 2002. Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25:1-72.
126. Preuschoft S, van Hooff J A R A M. 1997. The social function of "smile" and "laughter": variations across primate species and societies. Pages 171-189 in Nonverbal Communication: Where Nature Meets Culture, edited by U Segerstråle and P Molnár. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
127. Provine R R. 1986. Yawning as stereotyped action pattern and releasing stimulus. Ethology 72:448-455.
128. Provine R R. 1991. Laughter: a stereotyped human vocalization. Ethology 89:115-124.
129. Provine R R. 1992. Contagious laughter: laughter is a sufficient stimulus for laughs and smiles. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 30:1-4.
130. Provine R R. 1993. Laughter punctuates speech: linguistic, social, and gender contexts of laughter. Ethology 95:291-298.
131. Provine R R. 1996. Laughter. American Scientist 84:38-45.
132. Provine R R. 2000. Laughter: A Scientific Investigation. New York: Viking.
133. Provine RR, Fischer K R. 1989. Laughing, smiling, and talking: relation to sleeping and social context in humans. Ethology 83:295-305.
134. Ramachandran V S. 1998. The neurology and evolution of humor, laughter, and smiling: the False alarm theory. Medical Hypotheses 51:351-354.
135. Reddy V, Williams E, Vaughan A. 2002. Sharing humour and laughter in autism and Down's syndrome. British Journal of Psychology 93:219-242.
136. Rendall D, Owren M J. 2002. Animal vocal communication: say what? Pages 307-313 in The Cognitive Animal: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition, edited by M Bekoff, C Allen, G M Burghardt. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
137. Richerson P J, Boyd R. 1999. Complex societies: the evolutionary origins of a crude superorganism. Human Nature 10:253-289.
138. Richerson P J, Boyd R. 2004. Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.
139. Rizzolatti G, Arbib M A. 1998. Language within our grasp. Trends in Neuroscience 21:188-194.
140. Rizzolatti G, Craighero L. 2004. The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience 27:169-192.
141. Rizzolatti G, Craighero L, Fadiga L. 2002. The mirror system in humans. Pages 38-59 in Mirror Neurons and the Evolution of Brain and Language, edited by M I Stamenov and V Gallese. Philadelphia (PA): John Benjamins Publishing.
142. Rizzolatti G, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V. 1999. Resonance behaviors and mirror neurons. Archives Italiennes de Biologie 137:85-100.
143. Rogers S J, Hepburn S L, Stackhouse T, Wehner E. 2003. Imitation performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44:763-781.
144. Rosner F. 2002. Therapeutic efficacy of laughter in medicine. Cancer Investigation 20:434-436.
145. Rozin P, Haidt J, McCauley C, Imada S. 1997. The cultural evolution of disgust. Pages 65-82 in Food Preferences and Taste: Continuity and Change, edited by H Macbeth. Providence (RI): Berghahn Books.
146. Ruch W. 1993. Exhilaration and humor. Pages 605-616 in Handbook of Emotions, edited by M Lewis and J M Haviland. New York: Guilford Press.
147. Russell J A, Bachorowski J-A, Fernández-Dols J-M. 2003. Facial and vocal expressions of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology 54:329-349.
148. Sander K, Scheich H. 2001. Auditory perception of laughing and crying activates human amygdala regardless of attentional state. Cognitive Brain Research 12:181-198.
149. Saxe R, Carey S, Kanwisher N. 2004. Understanding other minds: linking developmental psychology and functional neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology 55:87-124.
150. Scheiner E, Hammerschmidt K, Jürgens U, Zwirner P. 2002. Acoustic analyses of developmental changes and emotional expression in the preverbal vocalizations of infants. Journal of Voice 16:509-529.
151. Schurmann M, Hesse M D, Stephan K E, Saarela M, Zilles K, Hari R, Fink G R. 2005. Yearning to yawn: the neural basis of contagious yawning. NeuroImage 24:1260-1264.
152. Seligman M E P, Csikszentmihalyi M. 2000. Positive psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist 55:5-14.
153. Sharpe L L, Clutton-Brock T H, Brotherton P N M, Cameron E Z, Cherry M I. 2002. Experimental provisioning increases play in free-ranging meerkats. Animal Behaviour 64:113-121.
154. Shibata D, Zhong J. 2001. Humour and Laughter: localization with fMRI. NeuroImage 13:S476.
155. Shultz T R. 1976. A cross-cultural study of the structure of humour. Pages 175-180 in It's a Funny Thing, Humour, edited by A J Chapman and H C Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.
156. Smoski M J, Bachorowski J-A. 2003a. Antiphonal laughter between friends and strangers. Cognition and Emotion 17:327-340.
157. Smoski M J, Bachorowski J-A. 2003b. Antiphonal laughter in developing friendships. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1000:300-303.
158. Sober E, Wilson D S. 1998. Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
159. Sosis R. 2004. The adaptive value of religious ritual. American Scientist 92:166-172.
160. Spinka M, Newberry R C, Bekoff M. 2001. Mammalian play: training for the unexpected. Quarterly Review of Biology 76:141-168.
161. Spoor J R, Kelly J R. 2004. The evolutionary significance of affect in groups: communication and group bonding. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 7:398-412.
162. Sroufe L A, Waters E. 1976. The ontogenesis of smiling and laughter: a perspective on the organization and development in infancy. Psychological Review 83:173-189.
163. Stamenov M I, Gallese V, editors. 2002. Mirror Neurons and the Evolution of Brain and Language. Philadelphia (PA): John Benjamins Publishing.
164. Storey R. 2003. Humor and sexual selection. Human Nature 14:319-336.
165. Tomasello M, Carpenter M, Call J, Behne T, Moll H. in press. Understanding and sharing intentions: T = the origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences.
166. Tooby J, Cosmides, L. 1990. The past explains the present: emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethology and Sociobiology 11:375-424.
167. Tugade M M, Fredrickson B L. 2004. Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86:320-333.
168. Vaid J. 2002. Humor and laughter. Pages 505-516 in Encyclopedia of the Human Brain, Volume 2, edited by V S Ramachandran. San Diego (CA): Academic Press.
169. Van den Berg C L, Van Ree J M, Spruijt B M. 2000. Morphine attenuates the effects of juvenile isolation in rats. Neuropharmacology 39:969-976.
170. van Hooff J A R A M. 1972. A comparative approach to the phylogeny of laughter and smiling. Pages 209-243 in Non-Verbal Communication, edited by R A Hinde. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
171. van Hooff J A R A M, Preuschoft S. 2003. Laughter and smiling: the intertwining of nature and culture. Pages 261-287 in Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies, edited by F B M de Waal and P L Tyack. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
172. Vettin J, Todt D. 2004. Laughter in conversation: features of occurrence and acoustic structure. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 28:93-115.
173. Vinton K L. 1989. Humor in the work place: is it more telling than jokes? Small Group Behavior 20:151-166.
174. Watkins K E, Strafella A P, Paus T. 2003. Seeing and hearing speech excites the motor system involved in speech production. Neuropsychologia 41:989-994.
175. Weisfeld G E. 1994. The adaptive value of humor and laughter. Ethology and Sociobiology 14:141-169.
176. Wicker B, Keysers C, Plailly J, Royet J-P, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G. 2003. Both of us disgusted in my insula: the common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron 40:655-664.
177. Wild B, Erb M, Eyb M, Bartels M, Grodd W. 2003. Why are smiles contagious? An fMRI study of the interaction between perception of facial affect and facial movements. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 123:17-36.
178. Wild B, Rodden F A, Grodd W, Ruch W. 2003. Neural correlates of laughter and humour. Brain 126:2121-2138.
179. Williams G C. 1966. Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
180. Williams J H G, Whiten A, Singh T. 2004. A systematic review of action imitation in autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 34:285-299.
181. Williams J H G, Whiten A, Suddendorf T, Perrett D I. 2001. Imitation, mirror neurons and autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 25:287-295.
182. Wilson D S. 2001. Cooperation and altruism. Pages 222-231 in Evolutionary Ecology: Concepts and Case Studies, edited by C W Fox, D A Roff, and D J Fairbairn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
183. Wilson D S. 2004. What is wrong with absolute individual fitness? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:245-248.
184. Wilson D S, Sober E. 1994. Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:585-654.
185. Wilson E O. 1998. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Thorndike (ME): Thorndike Press.
186. Wilson S M, Saygin A P, Serene M I, Iacoboni, M. 2004. Listening to speech activates motor areas involved in speech production. Nature Neuroscience 7:701-702.