On knowing it's only play: The role of play signals in play fighting

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 249-268

  Pellis, Sergio M ^a   Pellis, Vivien C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000301947     PISSN: 13591789     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/1359-1789(95)00016-X     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Aldis, O. (1975). Play fighting. New York: Academic Press.
2. Alvarez, F. (1993). Risks of fighting in relation to age and territory holding in fallow deer. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71, 376-383.
3. Andrew, R. J. (1963). The origin and evolution of the calls and facial expressions of the primates. Behaviour, 20, 1-109.
4. Archer, J. (1992). Ethology and human development. Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
5. Baldwin, J. D., & Baldwin, J. I. (1978). Exploration and play in howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata). Primates, 19, 411-422.
6. Barber, N. (1991). Play and energy regulation in mammals. Quarterly Review of Biology, 66, 323-340.
7. Barrett, P., & Bateson, P. P. G. (1978). The development of play in cats. Behaviour, 66, 106-120.
8. Barrette, C., & Vandal, D. (1990). Sparring, relative antler size, and assessment in male caribou. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 26, 383-387.
9. Bateson, G. (1955). A theory of play and fantasy. Psychiatry Research Reports, 2, 39-51.
10. Bekoff, M. (1972). The development of social interaction, play, and metacommunication in mammals: An ethological perspective. Quarterly Review of Biology, 47, 412-434.
11. Bekoff, M. (1974). Social play and play-soliciting by infant canids. American Zoologist, 14, 323-340.
12. Bekoff, M. (1975). The communication of play intention: Are play signals functional? Semiotica, 15, 231-239.
13. Bekoff, M. (1995). Play signals as punctuation: The structure of social play in canids. Behaviour, 132, 419-429.
14. Bekoff, M., & Byers, J. A. (1981). A critical reanalysis of the ontogeny and phylogeny of mammalian social and locomotor play: An ethological hornet's nest. In K. Immelmann, G. W. Barlow, O. Petrinovich, & M. Main (Eds.), Behavioral development: The Bielefeld interdisciplinary project (pp. 155-168). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
15. Biben, M. (1986). Individual- and sex-related strategies of wrestling play in captive squirrel monkeys. Ethology, 71, 229-241.
16. Biben, M., & Symmes, D. (1986). Play vocalizations of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Folia Primatologica, 46, 173-182.
17. Biben, M., Symmes, D., & Bernard, D. (1989). Vigilance during play in squirrel monkeys. American Journal of Primatology, 17, 41-49.
18. Blurton-Jones, N. (1967). An ethological study of some aspects of social behavior of children in nursery school. In D. Morris (Ed.), Primate ethology (pp. 347-368). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
19. Blurton-Jones, N. (1972). Categories of child-child interaction. In N. Blurton-Jones (Ed.), Ethological studies of child behavior (pp. 97-127). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
20. Bolwig, N. (1964). Facial expression in primates with remarks on a parallel development in certain carnivores (a preliminary report on work in progress). Behaviour, 22, 167-192.
21. Boulton, M. J. (1991). A comparison of structural and contextual features of middle school children's playful and aggressive fighting. Ethology and Sociobiology, 12, 119-145.
22. Boulton, M. J. (1993a). Children's abilities to distinguish between playful and aggressive fighting: A developmental perspective. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11, 249-263.
23. Boulton, M. J. (1993b). Proximate causes of aggressive fighting in middle school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 231-244.
24. Boulton, M. J. (1994). The relationship between playful and aggressive fighting in children, adolescents and adults. In J. Archer (Ed.), Male violence (pp. 23-41). London: Routledge.
25. Brown, R. E. (1979). Mammalian social odors: A critical review. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 10, 103-162.
26. Brown, S. (1988). Play behaviour in lowland gorillas: Age differences, sex differences, and possible functions. Primates, 29, 219-228.
27. Brown, S. L. (1994). Animals at play. National Geographic, 186, 2-35.
28. Byers, J. A. (1984). Play in ungulates. In P. K. Smith (Ed.), Play in animals and humans (pp. 43-65). Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
29. Cameron-Beaumont, C. (1995). The function of tail posture as a visual signal in the domestic cat. Paper presented at the 24th International Ethology Conference, Honolulu, HI.
30. Carpenter, C. R. (1934). A field study of the behavior and social relations of howling monkeys. Comparative Psychology Monograph, 10, 1-168.
31. Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. (1974). The primate play face: A possible key to the determinants and evolution of play. Rice University Studies, 60, 9-19.
32. Clutton-Brock, T. C., & Albon, S. D. (1979). The roaring of red deer and the evolution of honest advertisement. Behaviour, 69, 145-169.
33. Coppinger, R. P., & Smith, C. K. (1989). A model for understanding the evolution of mammalian behavior. In H. Genoways (Ed.), Current mammalogy (Vol. II, pp. 53-73). New York: Plenum Press.
34. Costabile, A., Smith, P. K., Matheson, L., Aston, J., Hunter, T., & Boulton, M. J. (1990). A cross-national comparison of how children distinguish serious and playful fighting. Developmental Psychology, 27, 881-887.
35. Davies, N. B., & Halliday, T. R. (1978). Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads, Bufo bufo. Nature, 274, 683-685.
36. de Waal, F. B. M. (1988). The communicative repertoire of captive bonobos (Pan paniscus) compared to that of the chimpanzee. Behaviour, 106, 183-251.
37. Dolhinow, P. (1978). A behavior repertoire for the Indian langur (Presbytis entellus). Primates, 19, 449-472.
38. Eisenberg, J. F., & Kuehn, R. E. (1966). The behavior of Ateles geoffroyi and related species. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 151, 1-63.
39. Ewer, R. F. (1968). Ethology of mammals. London, UK: Elek Science.
40. Fagen, R. (1981). Animal play behaviour. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
41. Feddersen-Petersen, D. (1991). The ontogeny of social play and agonistic behaviour in selected canid species. Bonner Zoologische Beitrage, 42, 97-114.
42. Fedigen, L. (1972). Social and solitary play in a colony of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Primates, 13, 347-364.
43. Fischer, R. B., & Nadler, R. D. (1978). Affiliative, playful and homosexual interactions of adult lowland gorillas. Primates, 19, 657-664.
44. Fox, M. W. (1970). A comparative study of the development of facial expressions in canids: Wolf, coyote and foxes. Behaviour, 36, 49-73.
45. Freeman, H. E. (1975). A preliminary study of the behaviour of captive snow leopards, Panthera unica. International Zoo Yearbook, 15, 217-222.
46. Freeman, H. E., & Alcock, J. (1973). Play behavior of a mixed group of juvenile gorillas and orang-utans. International Zoo Yearbook, 13, 189-194.
47. Fridlund, A. J., Sabini, J. P., Hedlund, L. E., Schaut, J. A., Shenker, J. I., & Krauer, M. J. (1990). Social determinants of facial expressions during affective imagery: Displaying to the people in your head. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 16, 191-212.
48. Fridlund, A. J. (1994). Human facial expression. An evolutionary view. New York: Academic Press.
49. Fry, D. (1987). Differences between play fighting and serious fighting among Zapotec children. Ethology and Sociobiology, 8, 285-306.
50. Gazzaniga, M. S., & Smylie, C. S. (1990). Hemispheric mechanisms controlling voluntary and spontaneous smiling. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 239-245.
51. Geist, V. (1966). The evolution of horn-like organs. Behaviour, 27, 177-214.
52. Geist, V. (1971). Mountain sheep. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
53. Geist, V. (1978). On weapons, combat and ecology. In L. Krames, P. Pliner, & T. Aloway (Eds.), Advances in the study of communication and affect (Vol. 4, pp. 1-30). New York: Plenum Press.
54. Geist, V. (1981). Behavior: Adaptive strategies in mule deer. In O. C. Wallmo (Ed.), Mule and black-tailed deer of North America (pp. 157-223). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
55. Geist, V. (1982). Adaptive behavioral strategies. In J. W. Thomas & D. E. Toweill (Eds.), Elk of North America (pp. 214-277). Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books.
56. Gentry, R. L. (1974). The development of social behavior through play in the Steller sea lion. American Zoologist, 14, 391-403.
57. Goedeking, P., & Immelmann, K. (1986). Vocal cues in cotton-top tamarin play vocalizations. Ethology, 73, 219-224.
58. Goldenthal, P., Johnston, R. E., & Kraut, R. E. (1981). Smiling, appeasement, and the silent bared-teeth display. Ethology and Sociobiology, 2, 127-133.
59. Goodall, J. (1965). Chimpanzees of the Gombe Stream reserve. In I. DeVore (Ed.), Primate behavior (pp. 425-447). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
60. Gosling, L. M., & McKay, H. V. (1990). Competitor assessment by scent-matching: An experimental test. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 26, 415-420.
61. Gould, L. (1990). The social development of free-ranging infant Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 11, 297-318.
62. Grier, J. W., & Burk, T. (1992). Biology of animal behavior (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby Year Book.
63. Groos, K. (1898). The play of animals. New York: Appleton.
64. Hall, K. R. L. (1965). Behaviour and ecology of the wild patas monkey, Erythrocebus patas, in Uganda. Journal of Zoology, 148, 15-87.
65. Hall, K. R. L., Boelkins, R. C., & Goswell, M. J. (1965). Behaviour of patas monkeys, Erythrocebus patas in captivity, with notes on their natural habitat. Folia Primatologica, 3, 22-49.
66. Hall, K. R. L., & Mayer, B. (1967). Social interactions in a group of captive patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). Folia Primatologica, 5, 213-236.
67. Hayaki, H. (1985). Social play of juvenile and adolescent chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Primates, 26, 343-360.
68. Henry, J. D., & Herrero, S. M. (1974). Social play in the American black bear: Its similarity to Canid social play and an examination of its identifying characteristics. American Zoologist, 14, 371-389.
69. Heymer, A. (1977). Ethological dictionary. Berlin: Paul Parey.
70. Hogan, J. A. (1988). Cause and function in the development of behavior systems. In E. M. Blass (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology: Vol. 9. Developmental psychobiology and behavioral ecology (pp. 63-106). New York: Plenum Press.
71. Humphreys, A. P., & Smith, P. D. (1987). Rough and tumble, friendship, and dominance in schoolchildren: Evidence for continuity and change with age. Child Development, 58, 201-212.
72. Hurst, J. L. (1987). The functions of urine marking in a free-living population of house mice, Mus domesticus Rutty. Animal Behaviour, 35, 1433-1442.
73. Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur behavior. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
74. Kavanagh, M. (1978). The social behavior of doucs (Pygathrix nemaeus nemaeus) at the San Diego Zoo. Primates, 19, 101-114.
75. Kirkevold, B. C., & Crockett, C. M. (1987). Behavioral development and proximity patterns in captive De Brazza's monkeys. In E. L. Zucker (Ed.), Comparative behavior of African monkeys (pp. 39-65). New York: Alan R. Liss, Inc.
76. Kirkevold, B. C., Lockard, J. S., & Heestan, J. E. (1982). Developmental comparisons of grimace and play mouth in infant pigtail macaques (Macaca nemistrina). American Journal of Primatology, 3, 277-283.
77. Krames, L., Carr, W. J., & Bergman, B. (1969). A phenomenon associated with social dominance among male rats. Psychonomic Science, 16, 11-12.
78. Larsson, K. (1978). Experiential factors in the development of sexual behaviour. In J. B. Hutchinson (Ed.), Biological determinants of sexual behaviour (pp. 55-86). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
79. Le Boeuf, B. J. (1977). Male-male competition and reproductive success in elephant seals. American Zoologist, 14, 163-176.
80. Leger, D. W. (1992). Biological foundations of behavior. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
81. Leonard, M. L., & Horn, A. G. (1995). Crowing in relation to status in roosters. Animal Behaviour, 49, 1283-1290.
82. LeResche, L. A. (1976). Dyadic play in Hamadryas baboons. Behaviour, 57, 290-305.
83. Leyhausen, P. (1979). Cat behavior: The predatory and social behavior of domestic and wild cats. New York: Garland STPM Press.
84. Lockard, J. S., Fahrenbruch, C. E., Smith, J. L., & Morgan, C. J. (1977). Smiling and laughter: Different phyletic origins? Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 10, 183-186.
85. Loizos, C. (1967). Play behaviour. In D. Morris (Ed.), Primate ethology (pp. 226-282). Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Co., Inc.
86. Manning, A., & Dawkins, M. S. (1992). An introduction of animal behaviour (4th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
87. Maple, T., & Zucker, E. L. (1978). Ethological studies of play behavior in captive great apes. In E. O. Smith (Ed.), Social play in primates (pp. 113-142). New York: Academic Press.
88. Marier, P. (1965). Communication in monkeys and apes. In I. Devore (Ed.), Field studies of monkeys and apes (pp. 544-585). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
89. Marriott, B. M., & Salzen, E. A. (1978). Facial expressions in captive squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Folia Primatologica, 29, 1-18.
90. Martin, P. (1984). The (four) whys and wherefores of play in cats: A review of functional evolutionary, developmental and causal issues. In P. K. Smith (Ed.), Play in animals and humans. New York: Basil Blackwell.
91. Martin, P., & Caro, T. M. (1985). On the functions of play and its role in behavioral development. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 15, 59-103.
92. Masataka, N., & Kohda, M. (1988). Primate play vocalizations and their functional significance. Folia Primatologica, 50, 152-156.
93. Mason, G. J. (1991). Stereotypies: A critical review. Animal Behaviour, 41, 1015-1037.
94. McDonald Pavelka, M. (1993). Monkeys of the mesquite. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
95. Meaney, M. J., Stewart, J., & Beatty, W. W. (1985). Sex differences in social play: The socialization of sex roles. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 15, 1-58.
96. Millar, S. (1981). Play. In D. McFarland (Ed.), The Oxford companion to animal behaviour (pp. 457-460). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
97. Miller, S. (1973). Ends, means and galumphing: Some leitmotifs of play. American Anthropologist, 75, 87-98.
98. Mitchell, R. W. (1991). Bateson's concept of "metacommunication" in play. New Ideas in Psychology, 9, 73-87.
99. Moller, A. P. (1987). Variation in badge size in male house sparrows Passer domesticus: Evidence for status signalling. Animal Behaviour, 35, 1637-1644.
100. Neill, S. R. (1976). Aggressive and nonaggressive fighting in 12-13 year old preadolescent boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 213-220.
101. Nickelson, S. A., & Lockard, J. S. (1978). Ethogram of Celebes monkeys (Macaca nigra) in two captive habitats. Primates, 19, 437-447.
102. Oloman, C. M., Breed, M. D., & Bell, W. J. (1976). Ontogenetic and temporal aspects of agonistic behavior in a cockroach, Periplanata americana. Behavioral Biology, 17, 243-248.
103. Oppenheimer, J. R. (1973). Social and communicative behavior patterns in the Cebus monkey. In C. R. Carpenter (Ed.), Behavioral regulators of behavior in primates (pp. 251-271). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.
104. Oppenheimer, J. R. (1977). Communication in New World monkeys. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), How animals communicate (pp. 851-889). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
105. Parquette, D. (1994). Fighting and play fighting in captive adolescent chimpanzees. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 49-65.
106. Pellegrini, A. D. (1988). Elementary school children's rough-and-tumble play and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 24, 802-806.
107. Pellegrini, A. D. (1989). What is a category? The case of rough-and-tumble play. Ethology and Sociobiology, 10, 331-341.
108. Pellis, S. M. (1979). A comparative and developmental study in the understanding of play. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Monash University, Melbourne, 'Australia.
109. Pellis, S. M. (1981). A description of social play by the Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen based on EshkolWachman movement notation. Bird Behaviour, 3, 61-79.
110. Pellis, S. M. (1984). Two aspects of play-fighting in a captive group of oriental small-clawed otters Amblonyx cinerea. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 65, 77-83.
111. Pellis, S. M. (1988). Agonistic versus amicable targets of attack and defense: Consequences for the origin, function and descriptive classification of play-fighting. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 85-104.
112. Pellis, S. M. (1993). Sex and the evolution of play fighting: A review and model based on the behavior of muroid rodents. The Journal of Play Theory and Research, 1, 55-75.
113. Pellis, S. M., & Pellis, V. C. (1991). Role reversal changes during the ontogeny of play fighting in male rats: Attack versus defense. Aggressive Behavior, 17, 179-189.
114. Pellis, S. M., & Pellis, V. C. (1992). Juvenilized play fighting in subordinate male rats. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 449-457.
115. Pellis, S. M., & Pellis, V. C. (1993). Influence of dominance on the development of play fighting in pairs of male Syrian golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus). Aggressive Behavior, 19, 293-302.
116. Pellis, S. M., & Pellis, V. C. (1994). A comparative analysis of the so-called primate play face. Presented at the 31st annual meeting of the Animal Behavior Society, Seattle, WA.
117. Pellis, S. M., Pellis, V. C., & McKenna, M. M. (1993). Some subordinates are more equal than others: Play fighting amongst adult subordinate male rats. Aggressive Behavior, 19, 385-393.
118. Pereira, M. E., Seeligson, M. L., & Macedonia, J. M. (1988). The behavioral repertoire of the black-and-white ruffed lemur, Varecia variegata variegata (Primates: Lemuridae). Folia Primatologica, 51, 1-32.
119. Poole, T. B. (1966). Aggressive play in polecats. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London, 18, 23-44.
120. Poole, T. B. (1978). An analysis of social play in polecats (Mustelidae) with comments on the form and evolutionary history of the open mouth play face. Animal Behaviour, 26, 36-49.
121. Poole, T. B. (1985). Social behaviour in mammals. Glasgow, UK: Blaclue & Sons Ltd.
122. Preuschoft, S. (1992). "Laughter" and "smile" in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Ethology, 91, 220-236.
123. Rasa, O. A. E. (1984). A motivational analysis of object play in juvenile dwarf mongooses (Helogale undulata rufula). Animal Behaviour, 32, 579-589.
124. Redican, W. K. (1975). Facial expressions in nonhuman primates. In L. A. Rosenblum (Ed.), Primate behavior: Developments infield and laboratory research (Vol. 4, pp. 103-194). New York: Academic Press.
125. Rowher, S. (1975). The social significance of avian winter plumage variability. Evolution, 29, 593-610.
126. Schaller, G. B. (1963). The mountain gorilla. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
127. Schaller, G. B. (1970). Mountain gorilla displays. In Field studies in natural history (pp. 193-201). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
128. Schaller, G. B. (1972). The Sergengeti lion. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
129. Schaller, G. B. (1977). Mountain monarchs. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
130. Schwartzman, H. B. (1979). Transformations: The anthopology of children's play. New York: Plenum Press.
131. Self, M. C. (1969). The American quarter horse in pictures. Philadelphia, PA: Macrae Smith Co.
132. Shirek-Ellefson, J. (1972). Social communication in some old world monkeys and gibbons. In P. Dolhinow (Ed.), Primate patterns (pp. 297-311). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
133. Smith, P. K. (1982). Does play matter? Functional and evolutionary aspects of animal and human play. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5, 139-184.
134. Smith, P. K., & Lewis, K. (1985). Rough-and-tumble play, fighting and chasing in nursery school children. Ethology and Sociobiology, 6, 175-181.
135. Sussman, R. W. (1974). Ecological distinctions in sympatric species of Lemur. In R. D. Martin, G. A. Dlyle, & A. C. Walker (Eds.), Prosimian biology (pp. 75-108). London: Duckworth.
136. Svihla, A. (1931). Habits of the Louisiana mink (Mustela vison vulgivagus). Journal of Mammalogy, 12, 366-368.
137. Symons, D. (1974). Aggressive play and communication in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). American Zoologist, 14, 317-322.
138. Symons, D. (1978a). Play and aggression: A study of rhesus monkeys. New York: Columbia University Press.
139. Symons, D. (1978b). The question of function: Dominance and play. In E. O. Smith (Ed.), Social play in primates (pp. 193-230). New York: Academic Press.
140. Takahashi, L. K., & Lore, R. K. (1983). Play fighting in juvenile rats and the development of agonistic behavior in male and female rats. Aggressive Behavior, 9, 217-227.
141. Tanner, J. E., & Byrne, R. W. (1993). Concealing facial evidence of mood: Perspective-taking in a captive gorilla? Primates, 34, 451-457.
142. Thierry, B., Demaria, C., Preuscroft, S., & Desportes, C. (1989). Structural convergence between silent bared-teeth display and relaxed open-mouth display in Tonkean macaque (Macaca tonkeana). Folia Primatologia, 52, 178-184.
143. Thor, D. H. (1979). Olfactory perception and inclusive fitness. Physiological Psychology, 7, 303-306.
144. Thor, D. H., & Holloway, W. R. (1982). Social memory of the male laboratory rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 96, 1000-1006.
145. Tomasello, M., Geist, D., & Frost G. T. (1989). A longitudinal investigation of gestural communication in young chimpanzees. Primates, 30, 35-50.
146. van Hoof, J. A. R. A. M. (1962). Facial expressions in higher primates. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London, 8, 97-125.
147. van Hoof, J. A. R. A. M. (1967). The facial displays of the catarrhine monkeys and apes. In D. Morris (Ed.), Primate ethology (pp. 9-88). New York: Anchor Books.
148. van Hoof, J. A. R. A. M. (1972). A comparative approach to the phylogeny of laughter and smiling. In R. A. Hinde (Ed.), Non-verbal communication (pp. 209-241). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
149. van Hoof, J. A. R. A. M. (1989). Laughter and humour, and the "duo-in-uno" of nature and culture. In W. A. Koch (Ed.), The nature of culture (pp. 120-149). Bochum: Studienverlag Dr. Norbert Brockmeyer.
150. van Lawick Goodall, J. (1968). A preliminary report on expressive movements and communication in the Gombe Stream chimpanzees. In P. C. Jay (Ed.), Primates: Studies in adaptation and variability (pp. 313-374). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
151. Voland, E. (1977). Social play behavior of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus End. 1777), in captivity. Primates, 18, 883-901.
152. Walters, J. R. (1987). Transition to adulthood. In B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 358-369). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
153. Walther, F. (1974). Some reflections on expressive behaviour in combat and courtship of certain horned ungulates. In V. Geist & F. Walther (Eds.), The behavior of ungulates and its relation to management (pp. 56-106). Morges, Switzerland: IUCN Publication No. 24.
154. Walther, F. (1984). Communication and expression in hoofed mammals. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
155. Watson, D. M., & Croft, D. B. (1994). Play fighting in captive red-necked wallabies, Macropus rufogriseus banksianus. Behaviour, 126, 219-245.
156. Weigel, R. M. (1979). The facial expressions of the brown capuchin monkey (Cebus apella). Behaviour, 68, 250-276.
157. Wemmer, C., & Fleming, M. J. (1974). Ontogeny of playful contact in a social mongoose, the meerkat, Suricatta suricatta. American Zoologist, 14, 427-436.
158. Wilson, J. D. (1992). A reassessment of the significance of status signalling in populations of wild great tits. Parus major. Animal Behaviour, 43, 999-1009.
159. Wyman, R. L., & Ward, J. A. (1973). The development of behaviour in the cichlid fish Etroplus maculatus. Zeitscrift für Tierpsychologie, 33, 461-491.
160. Zeller, A. C. (1986). A comparison of component patterns in threatening and friendly gestures in Macaca sylvanus of Gibralter. In D. M. Taub (Ed.), Current perspectives in primate social dynamics (pp. 487-504). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.