New insights on oxidative stress in the artery wall

Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Volumn 3, Issue 8, 2005, Pages 1825-1834

  Stocker, Roland ^a   Keaney Jr , J F ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular disease; Inflammation; Oxidative stress

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; FREE RADICAL; LIPOXYGENASE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; ARTERY WALL; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CONFERENCE PAPER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LIPID OXIDATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

ANIMALS; ARTERIES; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; FREE RADICALS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NADPH OXIDASE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; OXYGEN;

EID: 28344444371     PISSN: 15387933     EISSN: 15387836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01370.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (96)

1. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. The low-density lipoprotein pathway and its relation to atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem 1977; 46: 897-930.
2. Goldstein JL, Ho YK, Basu SK, Brown MS. Binding site on macrophages that mediates uptake and degradation of acetylated low density lipoprotein, producing massive cholesterol deposition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1979; 76: 333-7.
3. Krieger M, Acton S, Ashkenas J, Pearson A, Penman M, Resnick D. Molecular flypaper, host defense, and atherosclerosis. Structure, binding properties, and functions of macrophage scavenger receptors. J Biol Chem 1993; 268: 4569-72.
4. Henriksen T, Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: recognition by receptors for acetylated low density lipoproteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 6499-503.
5. Krieger M. The other side of scavenger receptors: pattern recognition for host defense. Curr Opin Lipidol 1997; 8: 275-80.
6. Steinbrecher UP, Parthasarathy S, Leake DS, Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Modification of low density lipoprotein by endothelial cells involves lipid peroxidation and degradation of low density lipoprotein phospholipids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1984; 81: 3883-7.
7. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. Beyond cholesterol: modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 915-24.
8. Ross R, Glomset JA. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 1976; 295: 369-77.
9. Stocker R, Keaney JF Jr. The role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev 2004; 84: 1381-478.
10. Esterbauer H, Gebicki J, Puhl H, Jürgens G. The role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL. Free Radic Biol Med 1992; 13: 341-90.
11. Haberland ME, Fong D, Cheng L. Malondialdehyde-altered protein occurs in atheroma of Watanabe Heritable Hyperlipidemic rabbits. Science 1988; 241: 215-8.
12. Palinski W, Ord VA, Plump AS, Breslow JL, Steinberg D, Witztum JL. AopE-deficient mice are a model of lipoprotein oxidation in atherogenesis. Demonstration of oxidation-specific epitopes in lesions and high titres of autoantibodies to malondialdehyde-lysine in serum. Arterioscler Thromb 1994; 14: 605-16.
13. Ylä-Herttuala S, Palinski W, Rosenfeld ME, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Butler S, Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Evidence for the presence of oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein in atherosclerotic lesions of rabbit and man. J Clin Invest 1989; 84: 1086-95.
14. Cushing, SD, Berliner JA, Valente AJ, Territo MC, Navab M, Parhami F, Gerrity R, Schwartz CJ, Fogelman AM. Minimally modified low density lipoprotein induces monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP-1) in human endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 5134-8.
15. Rajavashisth TB, Andalibi A, Territo MC, Berliner JA, Navab M, Fogelman AM, Lusis AJ. Induction of endothelial cell expression of granulocyte and macrophage colony-stimulating factors by modified low-density lipoproteins. Nature 1990; 344: 254-7.
16. Boring L, Gosling J, Cleary M, Charo IF. Decreased lesion formation in CCR2-/- mice reveals a role for chemokines in the initiation of atherosclerosis. Nature 1998; 394: 894-7.
17. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Fong LG, Steinberg D. Oxidatively modified low density lipoproteins: a potential role in recruitment and retention of monocyte/macrophages during atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 2995-8.
18. McMurray HF, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein is a chemoattractant for human T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 1993; 92: 1004-8.
19. Parums DV, Brown DL, Mitchinson MJ. Serum antibodies to oxidized low-density lipoprotein and ceroid in chronic periaortitis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1990; 114: 383-7.
20. Kugiyama K, Kerns SA, Morrisett JD, Roberts R, Henry PD. Impairment of endothelium-dependent arterial relaxation by lysolecithin in modified low-density lipoprotein. Nature 1990; 344: 160-2.
21. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 3rd edn. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
22. Kissner R, Nauser T, Bugnon P, Lye PG, Koppenol WH. Formation and properties of peroxynitrite as studied by laser flash photolysis, high-pressure stopped-flow technique, and pulse radiolysis. Chem Res Toxicol 1997; 10: 1285-92.
23. Winterbourn CC. Comparative reactivities of various biological compounds with myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide-chloride, and similarity of the oxidant to hypochlorite. Biochim Biophys Acta 1985; 840: 204-10.
24. Pattison DI, Davies MJ. Absolute rate constants for the reaction of hypochlorous acid with protein side chains and peptide bonds. Chem Res Toxicol 2001; 14: 1453-64.
25. Zou MH, Shi C, Cohen RA. Oxidation of the zinc-thiolate complex and uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by peroxynitrite. J Clin Invest 2002; 109: 817-26.
26. Fu X, Kassim SY, Parks WC, Heinecke JW. Hypochlorous acid oxygenates the cysteine switch domain of pro-matrilysin (MMP-7). A mechanism for matrix metalloproteinase activation and atherosclerotic plaque rupture by myeloperoxidase. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 41279-87.
27. Griendling KK, Sorescu D, Ushio-Fukai M. NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ Res 2000; 86: 494-501.
28. phox-containing NAD(P)H oxidase in vascular endothelial growth factor-induced signaling and angiogenesis. Circ Res 2002; 91: 1160-7.
29. Pagano PJ, Clark JK, Cifuentes-Pagano ME, Clark SM, Callis GM, Quinn MT. Localization of a constitutively active, phagocyte-like NADPH oxidase in rabbit aortic adventitia: enhancement by angiotensin II. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 14483-8.
30. Pagano PJ, Ito Y, Tornheim K, Gallop PM, Tauber AI, Cohen RA. An NADPH oxidase superoxide-generating system in the rabbit aorta. Am J Physiol 1995; 268: H2274-80.
31. Warnholtz A, Nickenig G, Schulz E, Macharzina R, Brasen JH, Skatchkov M, Heitzer T, Stasch JP, Griendling KK, Harrison DG, Bohm M, Meinertz T, Munzel T. Increased NADH-oxidase-mediated superoxide production in the early stages of atherosclerosis: evidence for involvement of the renin-angiotensin system. Circulation 1999; 99: 2027-33.
32. Hathaway CA, Heistad DD, Piegors DJ, Miller FJ Jr. Regression of atherosclerosis in monkeys reduces vascular superoxide levels. Circ Res 2002; 90: 277-83.
33. Kirk EA, Dinauer MC, Rosen H, Chait A, Heinecke JW, LeBoeuf RC. Impaired superoxide production due to a deficiency in phagocyte NADPH oxidase fails to inhibit atherosclerosis in mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20: 1529-35.
34. phox: an essential component of NADPH oxidase. Circulation 2000; 101: 1234-6.
35. Barry-Lane PA, Patterson C, van der Merwe M, Hu Z, Holland SM, Yeh ET, Runge MS. p47phox is required for atherosclerotic lesion progression in ApoE(-/-) mice. J Clin Invest 2001; 108: 1513-22.
36. Guzik TJ, West NE, Black E, McDonald D, Ratnatunga C, Pillai R, Channon KM. Vascular superoxide production by NAD(P)H oxidase: association with endothelial dysfunction and clinical risk factors. Circ Res 2000; 86: E85-90.
37. Sorescu D, Weiss D, Lassegue B, Clempus RE, Szocs K, Sorescu GP, Valppu L, Quinn MT, Lambeth JD, Vega JD, Taylor WR. Griendling KK. Superoxide production and expression of nox family proteins in human atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002; 105: 1429-35.
38. Guzik TJ, Mussa S, Gastaldi D, Sadowski J, Ratnatunga C, Pillai R, Channon KM. Mechanisms of increased vascular superoxide production in human diabetes mellitus: role of NAD(P)H oxidase and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Circulation 2002; 105: 1656-62.
39. Ohara Y, Peterson TE, Harrison DG. Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 2546-51.
40. Guthikonda S, Sinkey C, Barenz T, Haynes WG. Xanthine oxidase inhibition reverses endothelial dysfunction in heavy smokers. Circulation 2003; 107: 416-21.
41. Spiekermann S, Landmesser U, Dikalov S, Bredt M, Gamez G, Tatge H, Reepschlager N, Hornig B, Drexler H, Harrison DG. Electron spin resonance characterization of vascular xanthine and NAD(P)H oxidase activity in patients with coronary artery disease: relation to endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Circulation 2003; 107: 1383-9.
42. Fleming I, Busse R. Molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 284: R1-12.
43. Vasquez-Vivar J, Kalyanaraman B, Martasek P, Hogg N, Masters BS, Karoui H, Tordo P, Pritchard KA Jr. Superoxide generation by endothelial nitric oxide synthase: the influence of cofactors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95: 9220-5.
44. Pritchard KA Jr, Groszek L, Smalley DM, Sessa WC, Wu M, Villalon P, Wolin MS, Stemerman MB. Native low-density lipoprotein increases endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase generation of superoxide anion. Circ Res 1995; 77: 510-8.
45. Vásquez-Vivar J, Duquaine D, Whitsett J, Kalyanaraman B, Rajagopalan S. Altered tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism in atherosclerosis: implications for use of oxidized tetrahydrobiopterin analogues and thiol antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1655-61.
46. Hink U, Li H, Mollnau H, Oelze M, Matheis E, Hartmann M, Skatchkov M, Thaiss F, Stahl RA, Warnholtz A, Meinertz T, Griendling K, Harrison DG, Forstermann U, Munzel T. Mechanisms underlying endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Circ Res 2001; 88: E14-22.
47. Landmesser U, Dikalov S, Price SR, McCann L, Fukai T, Holland SM, Mitch WE, Harrison DG. Oxidation of tetrahydrobiopterin leads to uncoupling of endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase in hypertension. J Clin Invest 2003; 111: 1201-9.
48. Heinecke JW. Mass spectrometric quantification of amino acid oxidation products in proteins: insights into pathways that promote LDL oxidation in the human artery wall. FASEB J 1999; 13: 1113-20.
49. Daugherty A, Dunn JL, Rateri DL, Heinecke JW. Myeloperoxidase, a catalyst for lipoprotein oxidation, is expressed in human atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest 1994; 94: 437-44.
50. Hazell LJ, Arnold L, Flowers D, Waeg G, Malle E, Stocker R. Presence of hypochlorite-modified proteins in human atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 1535-44.
51. Hazen SL, Heinecke JW. 3-Chlorotyrosine, a specific marker of myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxidation, is markedly elevated in low density lipoprotein isolated from human atherosclerotic intima. J Clin Invest 1997; 99: 2075-81.
52. Hazen SL, Gaut JP, Crowley JR, Hsu FF, Heinecke JW. Elevated levels of protein-bound p-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, an amino-acid-derived aldehyde generated by myeloperoxidase, are present in human fatty streaks, intermediate lesions and advanced atherosclerotic lesions. Biochem J 2000; 352: 693-9.
53. Heller JI, Crowley JR, Hazen SL, Salvay DM, Wagner P, Pennathur S, Heinecke JW. p-Hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, an aldehyde generated by myeloperoxidase, modifies phospholipid amino groups of low density lipoprotein in human atherosclerotic intima. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 9957-62.
54. Zheng L, Nukuna B, Brennan ML, Sun M, Goormastic M, Settle M, Schmitt D, Fu X, Thomson L, Fox PL, Ischiropoulos H, Smith JD, Kinter M, Hazen SL. Apolipoprotein A-I is a selective target for myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxidation and functional impairment in subjects with cardiovascular disease. J Clin Invest 2004; 114: 529-41.
55. Bergt C, Pennathur S, Fu X, Byun J, O'Brien K, McDonald TO, Singh P, Anantharamaiah GM, Chait A, Brunzell J, Geary RL, Oram JF, Heinecke JW. The myeloperoxidase product hypochlorous acid oxidizes HDL in the human artery wall and impairs ABCA1-dependent cholesterol transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 13032-7.
56. Shishehbor MH, Aviles RJ, Brennan ML, Fu X, Goormastic M, Pearce GL, Gokce N, Keaney JF Jr, Penn MS, Sprecher DL, Vita JA, Hazen SL. Association of nitrotyrosine levels with cardiovascular disease and modulation by statin therapy. Jama 2003; 289: 1675-80.
57. Pennathur S, Bergt C, Shao B, Byun J, Kassim SY, Singh P, Green PS, McDonald TO, Brunzell J, Chait A, Oram JF, O'Brien K, Geary RL, Heinecke JW. Human atherosclerotic intima and blood of patients with established coronary artery disease contain high density lipoprotein damaged by reactive nitrogen species. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 42977-83.
58. Brennan ML, Penn MS, Van Lente F, Nambi V, Shishehbor MH, Aviles RJ, Goormastic M, Pepoy ML, McErlean ES, Topol EJ, Nissen SE, Hazen SL. Prognostic value of myeloperoxidase in patients with chest pain. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1595-604.
59. Brennan ML, Anderson MM, Shih DM, Qu XD, Wang X, Mehta AC, Lim LL, Shi W, Hazen SL, Jacob JS, Crowley JR, Heinecke JW, Lusis AJ. Increased atherosclerosis in myeloperoxidase-deficient mice. J Clin Invest 2001; 107: 419-30.
60. Heydeck D, Upston JM, Viita H, Ylä-Herttuala S, Stocker R. Oxidation of low-density lipoprotein by rabbit and human 15-lipoxygenase: prevalence of non-enzymatic reactions. J Lipid Res 2001; 42: 1082-8.
61. Ylä-Herttuala S, Rosenfeld ME, Parthasarathy S, Glass CK, Sigal E, Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Colocalization of 15-lipoxygenase mRNA and protein with epitopes of oxidized low density lipoprotein in macrophage-rich areas of atherosclerotic lesions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 6959-63.
62. Mehrabian M, Allayee H, Wong J, Shi W, Wang XP, Shaposhnik Z, Funk CD, Lusis AJ, Shih W. Identification of 5-lipoxygenase as a major gene contributing to atherosclerosis susceptibility in mice. Circ Res 2002; 91: 120-6.
63. Cyrus T, Witztum JL, Rader DJ, Tangirala R, Fazio S, Linton MF, Funk CD. Disruption of the 12/15-lipoxygenase gene diminishes atherosclerosis in apo E-deficient mice. J Clin Invest 1999; 103: 1597-604.
64. Dwyer JH, Allayee H, Dwyer KM, Fan J, Wu H, Mar R, Lusis AJ, Mehrabian M. Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase promoter genotype, dietary arachidonic acid, and atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 29-37.
65. Upston JM, Niu X, Brown AJ, Mashima R, Wang H, Senthilmohan R, Kettle AJ, Dean RT, Stocker R. Disease stage-dependent accumulation of lipid and protein oxidation products in human atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol 2002; 160: 701-10.
66. Cyrus T, Pratico D, Zhao L, Witztum JL, Rader DJ, Rokach J, FitzGerald GA, Funk CD. Absence of 12/15-lipoxygenase expression decreases lipid peroxidation and atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 2001; 103: 2277-82.
67. Pratico D, Tangirala RK, Radar D, Rokach J, FitzGerald GA. Vitamin E suppresses isoprostane generation in vivo and reduces atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice. Nat Med 1998; 4: 1189-92.
68. Tangirala RK, Pratico D, FitzGerald GA, Chun S, Tsukamoto K, Maugeais C, Usher DC, Pure E, Rader DJ. Reduction of isoprostanes and regression of advanced atherosclerosis by apolipoprotein E. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 261-6.
69. Witting PK, Pettersson K, Östlund-Lindqvist A-M, Westerlund C, Wågberg M, Stocker R. Dissociation of atherogenesis from aortic accumulation of lipid hydro(pero)xides in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. J Clin Invest 1999; 104: 213-20.
70. Witting PK, Pettersson K, Letters J, Stocker R. Site-specific anti-atherogenic effect of probucol in apolipoprotein E deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20: e26-33.
71. Stocker R, O'Halloran RA. Dealcoholized red wine decreases atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E gene-deficient mice independently of inhibition of lipid peroxidation in the artery wall. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 123-30.
72. Waddington E, Puddey IB, Croft KD. Red wine polyphenolic compounds inhibit atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice independently of effects on lipid peroxidation. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 54-61.
73. Stocker R. Dietary and pharmacological antioxidants in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 1999; 10: 589-97.
74. Fruebis J, Steinberg D, Dresel HA, Carew TA. A comparison of the antiatherogenic effects of probucol and a structural analogue of probucol in low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient rabbits. J Clin Invest 1994; 94: 392-8.
75. Suzuki H, Kurihara Y, Takeya M, Kamada N, Kataoka M, Jishage K, Ueda O, Sakaguchi H, Higashi T, Suzuki T, Takashima Y, Kawabe Y, Cynshi O, Wada Y, Honda M, Kurihara H, Aburatani H, Doi T, Matsumoto A, Azuma S, Noda T, Toyoda Y, Itakura H, Yazaki Y, Horiuchi S, Takahashi K, Kruijt JK, van Berkel TJC, Steinbrecher UP, Ishibashi S, Maeda N, Gordon S, Kodama T. A role for macrophage scavenger receptors in atherosclerosis and susceptibility to infection. Nature 1997; 386: 292-6.
76. Fraser I, Hughes D, Gordon S. Divalent cation-independent macrophage adhesion inhibited by monoclonal antibody to murine scavenger receptor. Nature 1993; 364: 343-6.
77. de Winther MP, Gijbels MJ, van Dijk KW, van Gorp PJ, Suzuki H, Kodama T, Frants RR, Havekes LM, Hofker MH. Scavenger receptor deficiency leads to more complex atherosclerotic lesions in APOE3Leiden transgenic mice. Atherosclerosis 1999; 144: 315-21.
78. Vivekananthan DP, Penn MS, Sapp SK, Hsu A, Topol EJ. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2003; 361: 2017-23.
79. Nievelstein PFEM, Fogelman AM, Mottino G, Frank JS. Lipid accumulation in rabbit aortic intima 2 hours after bolus infusion of low density lipoprotein. A deep-etch and immunolocalization study of ultrarapidly frozen tissue. Arterioscl Thromb 1991; 11: 1795-805.
80. Camejo G, Hurt-Camejo E, Olsson U, Bondjers G. Proteoglycans and lipoproteins in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 1993; 4: 385-91.
81. Vijayagopal P, Srinivasan SR, Radhakrishnamurthy B, Berenson GS. Lipoprotein-proteoglycan complexes from atherosclerotic lesions promote cholesteryl ester accumulation in human monocytes/macrophages. Arterioscl Thromb 1992; 12: 237-49.
82. Skalen K, Gustafsson M, Rydberg EK, Hulten LM, Wiklund O, Innerarity TL, Borén J. Subendothelial retention of atherogenic lipoproteins in early atherosclerosis. Nature 2002; 417: 750-4.
83. Hazell LJ, Stocker R. α-Tocopherol does not inhibit hypochlorite-induced oxidation of apolipoprotein B-100 of low-density lipoprotein. FEBS Lett 1997; 414: 541-4.
84. Ross R. Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 115-26.
85. 2 for platelet-derived growth factor signal transduction. Science 1995; 270: 296-9.
86. Gopaul NK, Anggard EE, Mallet AI, Betteridge DJ, Wolff SP, Nourooz-Zadeh J. Plasma 8-epi-PGF2 alpha levels are elevated in individuals with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. FEBS Lett 1995; 368: 225-9.
87. Morrow JD, Frei B, Longmire AW, Gaziano JM, Lynch SM, Shyr Y, Strauss WE, Oates JA, Roberts LJ II. Increase in circulating products of lipid peroxidation (F2-isoprostanes) in smokers. Smoking as a cause of oxidative damage. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1198-203.
88. Keaney JF Jr, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Wilson PW, Lipinska I, Corey D, Massaro JM, Sutherland P, Vita JA, Benjamin EJ. Obesity and systemic oxidative stress: clinical correlates of oxidative stress in the Framingham Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003; 23: 434-9.
89. Hwang SJ, Ballantyne CM, Sharrett AR, Smith LC, Davis CE, Gotto AM Jr, Boerwinkle E. Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation 1997; 96: 4219-25.
90. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature 2002; 420: 868-74.
91. Nathan C. Points of control in inflammation. Nature 2002; 420: 846-52.
92. Albert MA, Danielson E, Rifai N, Ridker PM. Effect of statin therapy on C-reactive protein levels: the pravastatin inflammation/CRP evaluation (PRINCE): a randomized trial and cohort study. Jama 2001; 286: 64-70.
93. Palmer RM, Stapleton JA, Sutherland G, Coward PY, Wilson RF, Scott DA. Effect of nicotine replacement and quitting smoking on circulating adhesion molecule profiles (sICAM-1, sCD44v5, sCD44v6). Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32: 852-7.
94. Ziccardi P, Nappo F, Giugliano G, Esposito K, Marfella R, Cioffi M, D'Andrea F, Molinari AM, Giugliano D. Reduction of inflammatory cytokine concentrations and improvement of endothelial functions in obese women after weight loss over one year. Circulation 2002; 105: 804-9.
95. Rodriguez-Moran M, Guerrero-Romero F. Elevated concentrations of C-reactive protein in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus are moderately influenced by glycemic control. J Endocrinol Invest 2003; 26: 216-21.
96. Munzel T, Keaney JF Jr. Are ACE inhibitors a "magic bullet" against oxidative stress? Circulation 2001; 104: 1571-4.