Trochophora larvae: Cell-lineages, ciliary bands and body regions. 2. Other groups and general discussion

Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution

Volumn 304, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 401-447

  Nielsen, Claus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; CYTOLOGY; EUKARYOTIC FLAGELLUM; EVOLUTION; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HISTOLOGY; INVERTEBRATE; LARVA; PLANKTON; PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CILIA; EVOLUTION; INVERTEBRATES; LARVA; PLANKTON;

ACOELOMORPHA; ANNELIDA; BRACHIOPODA; BRYOZOA; ECHINODERMATA; ENTEROPNEUSTA; ENTOPROCTA; MOLLUSCA; NEMERTEA; PHORONIFORMEA; PLATYHELMINTHES; ROTIFERA; SIPUNCULIDA; SPIRALIA;

EID: 27844612056     PISSN: 15525007     EISSN: 15525015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.21050     Document Type: Review

References (309)

1. Adrianov AV. 2002. Microscopic anatomy and ultrastructure of nephridium in the sipunculan Thysanocardia nigra Ikeda, 1904 from the Sea of Japan. Russ J Mar Biol 28:19-29.
2. Ahlrichs WH. 1997. Epidermal ultrastructure of Seison nebaliae and Seison annulatus, and a comparison of epidermal structures within the Gnathifera. Zoomorphology 117:41-48.
3. Åkesson B. 1958. A study of the nervous system of the Sipunculoideae. Unders Öresund 38:1-249.
4. Åkesson B. 1961. The development of Golfingia elongata Keferstein (Sipunculidea) with some remarks on the development of neurosecretory cells in sipunculids. Ark Zool, 2 Ser 13:511-531.
5. Allen JA. 1961. The development of Pandora inaequivalvis (Linné). J Embryol Exp Morphol 9:252-268.
6. Anderson DT. 1973. Embryology and phylogeny of annelids and arthropods (Int Ser Monogr Pure Appl Biol, Zool 50). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
7. Arendt D, Technau U, Wittbrodt J. 2001. Evolution of the bilaterian larval foregut. Nature 409:81-85.
8. Arendt D, Tessmar-Raible K, Snyman H, Dorresteijn AW, Wittbrodt J. 2004. Ciliary photoreceptors with a vertebrate-type opsin in an invertebrate brain. Science 306:869-871.
9. Atkins D. 1959. The growth stages of the lophophore of the brachiopods Platidia davidsoni (Eudes Deslongchamps) and P. anomoides (Philippi), with notes on the feeding mechanism. J Mar Biol Ass UK 38:103-132.
10. Atkins D. 1961. The growth stages and adult structure of the lophophore of the brachiopods Megerlia truncata (L.) and M. echinata (Fischer & Oehlert). J Mar Biol Ass UK 41:95-111.
11. Ax P. 1995. Das System der Metazoa I. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
12. Ax P. 1999. Das System der Metazoa II. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
13. Ax P. 2001. Das System der Metazoa III. Heidelberg: Spektrum.
14. Baguñà J, Riutort M. 2004. Molecular phylogeny of the Platyhelminthes. Can J Zool 82:168-193.
15. Ballarin L, Galleni L. 1987. Evidence for planctonic feeding in Götte's larva of Stylochus mediterraneus (Turbellaria-Polycladida). Boll Zool 54:83-85.
16. Barrois J. 1877. Recherches sur l'embryologie des Bryozoaires. Trav Sta Zool Wimereux 1:1-305.
17. Bartolomaeus T. 1985. Ultrastructure and development of the protonephridia of Lineus viridis (Nemertini). Microfauna Mar 2:61-83.
18. Bartolomaeus T. 1989. Ultrastructure and relationship between protonephridia and metanephridia in Phoronis muelleri (Phoronida). Zoomorphology 109:113-122.
19. Bartolomaeus T. 1995. Secondary monociliarity in the Annelida: monociliated epidermal cells in larvae of Magelona mirabilis (Magelonidaa). Microfauna Mar 10:327-332.
20. Bartolomaeus T. 2001. Ultrastructure and formation of the body cavity lining in Phoronis muelleri (Phoronida, Lophophorata). Zoomorphology 120:135-148.
21. Beauchamp P. 1907. Morphologie et variations de l'apparail rotateur dans la série des Rotifères. Arch Zool Exp Gén, 4 Sér 6:1-29.
22. Beauchamp P. 1956. Le développement de Ploesoma hudsoni (Imhof) et l'origine des feuillets chez les Rotifères. Bull Soc Zool Fr 81:374-383.
23. Beauchamp P. 1965. Classe des Rotifères. In: Traité de Zoologie, Vol. 4(3). Paris: Masson. p 1225-1379.
24. Beer A-J, Moss C, Thorndyke M. 2001. Development of serotonin-like and SALMFamide-like immunoreactivity in the nervous system of the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. Biol Bull Woods Hole 200:268-280.
25. Benito J, Pardos F. 1997. Hemichordata. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 15. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 15-101.
26. Blochmann F. 1892-1900. Untersuchungen über den Bau der Brachiopoden I-II. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
27. Blumer JF. 1997. The larval ocelli of Golfingia misakiana (Sipuncula, Golfingiidae) and of a pelagosphaera of another unidentified species. Zoomorphology 117:115-120.
28. Bogomolov CI. 1949. On the cleavage type of Rhabdocoela (In Russian). Uchenye zapiski Leningradskogo ordena Lenina gosudarstvennogo universitata, Seria Biologicheskii Nauk 20:128-142.
29. Boyer BC. 1986. Determinative development in the polyclad turbellarian, Hoploplana inquilina. Int J Invertebr Reprod Dev 9:243-251.
30. Boyer BC. 1987. Development of in vitro fertilized embryos of the polyclad flatworm, Hoploplana inquilina, following blastomere separation and deletion. Roux's Arch Dev Biol 196:158-164.
31. Boyer BC. 1989. The role of the first quartet micromeres in the development of the polyclad Hoploplana inquilina. Biol Bull Woods Hole 177:338-343.
32. Boyer BC. 1997. Mechanisms of development in the polyclad Turbellaria: a key to understanding the evolution of development in the Spiralia. In: Adiyodi KG, Adiyodi RG, editors. Reproductive biology of invertebrates, Vol. 7. Chichester: Wiley. p 43-65.
33. Boyer BC, Henry JJ, Martindale MQ. 1998. The cell lineage of a polyclad turbellariann embryo reveals close similarity to coelomate spiralians. Dev Biol 204:111-123.
34. Boyer BC, Henry JQ. 1998. Evolutionary modifications of the spiralian developmental program. Am Zool 38:621-633.
35. Boyer BC, Henry JQ, Martindale MQ. 1996. Dual origins of mesoderm in a basal spiralian: cell lineage analyses in the polyclad turbellarian Hoploplana inquilina. Dev Biol 179:329-338.
36. Brandenburger JL, Woollacott RM, Eakin RE. 1973. Fine structure of eyespots in tornarian larvae. Z Zellforsch 142:89-102.
37. Bruce AEE, Shankland M. 1998. Expression of the head gene Lox22-Otx in the leach Helobdella and the origin of the bilaterian body plan. Dev Biol 201:101-112.
38. Buckland-Nicks J, Gibson G, Koss R. 2002. Phylum Mollusca: Gastropoda. In: Young CM, editor. Atlas of marine invertebrate larvae. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p 261-287.
39. Cameron CB, Garey JR, Swalla BJ. 2000. Evolution of the chordate body plan: new insights from phylogenetic analyses of deuterostome phyla. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4469-4474.
40. Cantell C-E. 1966. The devouring of the larval tissue during metamorphosis of pilidium larvae (Nemertini). Ark Zool, 2 Ser 18:489-492 (1 pl.).
41. Cantell C-E. 1969. Morphology, development, and biology of the pilidium larvae (Nemertini) from the Swedish west coast. Zool Bidr Upps 38:61-112.
42. Cantell C-E. 1989. Nemertina. In: Adiyodi KG, Adiyodi RG, editors. Reproductive biology of invertebrates, Vol. 4A. Chichester: Wiley. p 147-165.
43. Chuang S-H. 1968. The larvae of a discinid (Inarticulata, Brachiopoda). Biol Bull Woods Hole 135:263-272.
44. Chuang S-H. 1977. Larval development in Discinisca (Inarticulate brachiopod). Am Zool 17:39-53.
45. Clément P. 1993. The phylogeny of rotifers: molecular, ultrastructural and behavioural data. Hydrobiologia 255/256:527-544.
46. Clément P, Wurdak E. 1991. Rotifera. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 4. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 219-297.
47. Cohen B, Holmer LE, Lüter C. 2003. The brachiopod fold: a neglected body plan hypothesis. Palaeontology 46:59-65.
48. Cohen BL. 2000. Monophyly of brachiopods and phoronids: reconciliation of molecular evidence with Linnaean classification (the subphylum Phoroniformea nov.). Proc Roy Soc Lond B 267:225-231.
49. Colwin AL, Colwin LH. 1950. The developmental capacities of separated early blastomeres of an enteropneust, Saccoglossus kowalevskii. J Exp Zool 115:263-295.
50. Colwin AL, Colwin LH. 1951. Relationships between the egg and larva of Phoronis Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Enteropneusta): axes and planes; general prospective significance of the early blastomeres. J Exp Zool 117:111-137.
51. Colwin AL, Colwin LH. 1953. The normal embryology of Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Enteropneusta). J Morphol 92:401-453.
52. Conklin EG. 1897. The embryology of Crepidula. J Morphol 13:1-226.
53. Cook CE, Jiménez E, Akam M, Saló E. 2004. The Hox gene complement of acoel flatworms, a basal bilaterian clade. Evol Dev 6:154-163.
54. Dautov SS, Nezlin LP. 1992. Nervous system of the tornaria larva (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta). A histochemical and ultrastructural study. Biol Bull Woods Hole 183:463-475.
55. Davidson EH, Cameron RA, Ransick A. 1998. Specification of cell fate in the sea urchin embryo: summary and some proposed mechanisms. Development 125:3269-3290.
56. Dawydoff C. 1940. Les formes larvaires de polyclades et de némertes du plancton indochinois. Bull Biol Fr Belg 74:443-496.
57. Delsman HC. 1915. Eifurchung und Gastrulation bei Emplectonema gracile Stimpson. Tijdschr Ned Dierk Vereen, 2 Ser 14:68-114 (pls 6-9).
58. Dickinson AJG, Croll RP. 2003. Development of the larval nervous system of the gastropod Ilyanassa obsoleta. J Comp Neurol 466:197-218.
59. Dictus WJAG, Damen P. 1997. Cell lineage and clonal-contribution map of the trochophore larva of Patella vulgata (Mollusca). Mech Dev 62:213-226.
60. Dilly PN, Welsch U, Rehkämper G. 1986a. On the fine structure of the alimentary tract of Cephalodiscus gracilis (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata). Acta Zool (Stockh) 67:87-95.
61. Dilly PN, Welsch U, Rehkämper G. 1986b. Fine structure of tentacles, arms and associated coelomic structures of Cephalodiscus gracilis (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata). Acta Zool (Stockh) 67:181-191.
62. Ehlers U. 1985. Das phylogenetische System der Plathelminthes. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
63. Ellis CHJ, Fausto-Sterling A. 1997. Platyhelminthes, the Flatworms. In: Gilbert SF, Raunio AM, editors. Embryology, constructing the organism. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p 115-130.
64. Emschermann P. 1965. Über die sexuelle Fortpflanzung und die Larve von Urnatella gracilis Leidy (Kamptozoa). Z Morphol Ökol Tiere 55:100-114.
65. Fernández I, Pardos F, Beniti J, Roldán C. 1996. Ultrastructural observations on the phoronid nervous system. J Morphol 230:265-281.
66. Franke M. 1993. Ultrastructure of the protonephridia in Loxosomella fauveli, Barentsia matsushimana and Pedicellina cernua. Implications for the protonephridia in the ground pattern of the Entoprocta (Kamptozoa). Microfauna Mar 8:7-38.
67. Franzén Å. 1969. On larval development and metamorphosis in Terebratulina, Brachiopoda. Zool Bidr Upps 38:155-174, 2 pls.
68. Freeman G. 1991. The bases for and timing of regional specification during larval development of Phoronis. Dev Biol 147:157-173.
69. Freeman G. 1993. Regional specification during embryogenesis in the articulate brachiopod Terebratalia. Dev Biol 160:196-213.
70. Freeman G. 1995. Regional specification during embryogenesis in the inarticulate brachiopod Glottidia. Dev Biol 172:15-36.
71. Freeman G. 1999. Regional specification during embryogenesis in the inarticulate brachiopod Discinisca. Dev Biol 209:321-339.
72. Freeman G. 2000. Regional specification during embryogenesis in the craniiform brachiopod Crania anomala. Dev Biol 227:219-238.
73. Freeman G. 2003. Regional specification during embryogenesis in Rhynchonelliform brachiopods. Dev Biol 261:268-287.
74. Freeman G, Lundelius JW. 1999. Changes in the timing of mantle formation and larval life history traits in linguliform and craniiform brachiopods. Lethaia 32:197-217.
75. Freeman G, Martindale MQ. 2002. The origin of mesoderm in phoronids. Dev Biol 252:301-311.
76. Frick JE, Ruppert EE. 1996. Primordial germ cells of Synaptula hydriformis (Holothuroidea: Echinodermata) are epithelial flagellated-collar cells: their apical-basal polarity becomes primary egg polarity. Biol Bull Woods Hole 191:168-177.
77. Friedrich H. 1979. Nemertini. In: Seidel F, editor. Morphogenese der Tiere, Deskriptive Morphogenese, 3. Lieferung. Jena: Gustav Fischer. p 1-136.
78. Gerould JH. 1906. The development of Phascolosoma. Zool Jb, Anat 23:77-162.
79. Giesa S. 1966. Die Embryonalentwickling von Monocelis fusca (Turbellaria, Proseriata). Z Morphol Ökol Tiere 57:137-230.
80. Gilbert SF. 1997. Developmental biology, 5th edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
81. Gilmour THJ. 1981. Food-collecting and waste-rejecting mechanisms in Glottidia pyramidata and the persistence of lingulacean inarticulate brachiopods in the fossil record. Can J Zool 59:1539-1547.
82. Gilmour THJ. 1982. Feeding in tornaria larvae and the development of gill slits in enteropneust hemichordates. Can J Zool 60:3010-3020.
83. Giribet G. 2002. Current advances in the phylogenetic reconstruction of metazoan evolution. A new paradigm for the Cambrian explosion? Mol Phyl Evol 24:345-357.
84. Giribet G. 2003. Molecules, development and fossils in the study of metazoan evolution; Articulata versus Ecdysozoa revisited. Zoology 106:303-326.
85. Giribet G, Distel DL, Polz M, Sterrer W, Wheeler WC. 2000. Triploblastic relationships with emphasis on the acoelomates and the position of Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora, Plathelminthes, and Chaetognatha: a combined approach of 18S rDNA sequences and morphology. Syst Biol 49:539-562.
86. Glenner H, Hansen AJ, Sørensen MV, Ronquist F, Huelsenbeck JP, Willerslev E. 2004. Bayesian inference of the metazoan phylogeny: a combined molecular and morphological approach. Curr Biol 14:1644-1649.
87. Goldstein B, Freeman G. 1997. Axis specification in animal development. BioEssays 19:105-116.
88. Grobben K. 1908. Die systematische Einteilung des Tierreichs. Verh Zool-Bot Ges Wien 58:491-511.
89. Gruner H-E. 1980. Einführung. In: Gruner H-E, editor. A. Kaestner's Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie (4th edition), 1. Band, 1. Teil. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer. p 15-156.
90. Gutman WF, Zorn H, Vogel K. 1978. Brachiopods: biochemical interdependencies governing their origin and phylogeny. Science 199:890-893.
91. Hadfield KA, Swalla BJ, Jeffery WR. 1995. Multiple origins of anural development in ascidians inferred from rDNA sequences. J Mol Evol 40:413-427.
92. Hadfield M. 1975. Hemichordata. In: Giese AC, Pearse JS, editors. Reproduction of marine invertebrates. New York: Academic Press. p 185-240.
93. Hadfield MG. 2002. Phylum Hemichordata. In: Young CM, editor. Atlas of marine invertebrate larvae. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p 553-564.
94. Hallez P. 1887. Embryogénie des Dendrocoeles d'eau douce. Mém Soc Sci Agric Lille 16:1-107, 5 pls.
95. Hammond LS. 1980. The larvae of a discinid (Brachiopoda: Inarticulata) from inshore waters near Townsville, Australia, with revised identifications of previous records. J Nat Hist 14:647-661.
96. Harmer SF. 1885. On the structure and development of Loxosoma. Q J Microsc Sci, NS 25:261-337, pls 19-21.
97. Harrison FW. 1994. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 14, Echinodermata. New York: Wiley-Liss.
98. Hart MW. 1991. Particle captures and the method of suspension feeding by echinoderm larvae. Biol Bull Woods Hole 180:12-27.
99. Hartenstein V, Ehlers U. 2000. The embryonic development of the rhabdocoel flatworm Mesostoma lingua (Abildgaard, 1789). Dev Genes Evol 210:399-415.
100. Hartwich G. 1984. Stamm Nemathelminthes (syn. Aschelminthes), Slauchwürmer. In: Gruner H-E, editor. A. Kaestner's Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie (4th edition), 1. Band, 2. Teil. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer. p 463-548.
101. Haszprunar G. 1996. Plathelminthes and Plathelminthomorpha - paraphyletic taxa. J Zool Syst Evolut Res 34:41-48.
102. Haszprunar G, Salvini-Plawen L, Rieger R. 1995. Larval planktotrophy - a primitive trait in the Bilateria? Acta Zool (Stockh) 76:141-154.
103. Hatschek B. 1883. Über Entwicklung von Sipunculus nudus. Arb Zool Inst Univ Wien 5:61-140.
104. Hatschek B. 1888. Lehrbuch der Zoologie, 1. Lieferung . Jena: Gustav Fischer. p 1-144.
105. Hatschek B. 1891. Lehrbuch der Zoologie, 3. Lieferung . Jena: Gustav Fischer. p 305-432.
106. Havenhand JN. 1995. Evolutionary ecology of larval types. In: McEdward L, editor. Ecology of marine invertebrate larvae. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p 79-122.
107. Hay-Schmidt A. 1987. The ultrastructure of the protonephridium of the actinotroch larva (Phoronida). Acta Zool (Stockh) 68:35-47.
108. Hay-Schmidt A. 1989. The nervous system of the actinotroch larva of Phoronis muelleri (Phoronida). Zoomorphology 108:333-351.
109. Hay-Schmidt A. 1990a. Catecholamine-containing, serotonin-like, and FMRFamide-like immunoreactive neurons and processes in the nervous system of the early actinotroch larva of Phoronis vancouverensis (Phoronida): distribution and development. Can J Zool 68:1525-1536.
110. Hay-Schmidt A. 1990b. Distribution of catecholamine-containing, serotonin-like and neuropeptide FMRFamide-like immunoreactive neurons and processes in the nervous system of the actinotroch larva of Phoronis muelleri (Phoronida). Cell Tissue Res 259:105-118.
111. Hay-Schmidt A. 1990c. Catecholamine-containing, serotonin-like and neuropeptide FMRFamide-like immunoreactive cells and processes in the nervous system of the pilidium larva (Nemertini). Zoomorphology 109:231-244.
112. Hay-Schmidt A. 1992. Ultrastructure and immunocytochemistry of the nervous system of the larvae of Lingula anatina and Glottidia sp. (Brachiopoda). Zoomorphology 112:189-205.
113. Hay-Schmidt A. 2000. The evolution of the serotonergic nervous system. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 267:1071-1079.
114. Henry J, Martindale MQ. 1997. Nemertines, the ribbon worms. In: Gilbert SF, Raunio AM, editors. Embryology. Constructing the organism. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p 151-166.
115. Henry JJ. 2002. Conserved mechanism of dorsoventral axis determination in equal-cleaving spiralians. Dev Biol 248:343-355.
116. Henry JJ, Martindale MQ. 1998. Conservation of the spiralian developmental program: cell lineage of the nemertean, Cerebratulus lacteus. Dev Biol 201:253-269.
117. Henry JJ, Martindale MQ. 1999. Conservation and innovation in spiralian development. Hydrobiologia 402:255-265.
118. Henry JJ, Klueg KM, Raff RA. 1992. Evolutionary dissociation between cleavage, cell lineage and embryonic axes in sea urchin embryos. Development 114:931-938.
119. Henry JQ, Martindale MQ. 1994. Establishment of the dorsoventral axis in nemertean embryos: evolutionary considerations of spiralian development. Dev Genet 15:64-78.
120. Henry JQ, Martindale MQ. 1996. The establishment of embryonic axial properties in the nemertean, Cerebratulus lacteus. Dev Biol 180:713-721.
121. Henry JQ, Martindale MQ, Boyer BC. 2000. The unique developmental program of the acoel flatworm, Neochildia fusca. Dev Biol 220:285-295.
122. Henry JQ, Tagawa K, Martindale MQ. 2001. Deuterostome evolution: early development in the enteropneust hemichordate, Ptychodera flava. Evol Dev 3:375-390.
123. Henry JQ, Okusu A, Martindale MQ. 2004. The cell lineage of the polyplacophoran Chaetopleura apiculata: variation in the spiralian program and implications for molluscan evolution. Dev Biol 272:145-160.
124. Herrmann K. 1979. Larvalentwicklung und Metamorphose von Phoronis psammophila (Phoronida, Tentaculata). Helgoländer Wiss Meeresunters 32:550-581.
125. Herrmann K. 1980. Die archimere Gliederung bei Phoronis mülleri (Tentaculata). Zool Jb, Anat 103:234-249.
126. Herrmann K. 1997. Phoronida. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 13. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 207-235.
127. Hickman VV. 1963. The occurrence in Tasmania of the land nemertine, Geonemertes australiensis Dendy, with some account of its distribution, habits, variations and development. Pap Proc Roy Soc Tasmania 97:63-75.
128. Hooge MD. 2001. Evolution of body-wall musculature in the Platyhelminthes (Acoelomorpha, Catenulida, Rhabditophora). J Morphol 249:171-194.
129. Hörstadius S. 1937. Experiments on determination in the early development of Cerebratulus lacteus. Biol Bull Woods Hole 73:317-342.
130. Hörstadius S. 1939. The mechanisms of sea urchin development studied by operative methods. Biol Rev 14:132-179.
131. Hyman LH. 1951. The invertebrates, Vol. 3. Acanthocephala, Aschelminthes, and Entoprocta. The pseudocoelomate bilateria. New York: McGraw-Hill.
132. Hyman LH. 1959. The invertebrates, Vol. 5. Smaller coelomate groups. New York: McGraw-Hill.
133. Ivanova-Kazas OM. 1985a. The origin and phylogenetic significance of the trochophoran larvae. 2. Evolutionary significance of the larvae of coelomate worms and molluscs. Zool Zh 64:650-660 (in Russian, English summary).
134. Ivanova-Kazas OM. 1985b. Origin and phylogenetic significance of the trochophoran larvae. 3. Larvae of flatworms and nemerteans. Zool Zh 64:1765-1776 (in Russian, English summary).
135. Ivanova-Kazas OM. 1986. Origin and phylogenetic significance of the trochophoran larvae. 4. Kamptozoa larvae. General ideas. Zool Zh 65:165-174 (in Russian, English summary).
136. Ivanova-Kazas OM. 1987. Origin, evolution and phylogenetic significance of ciliated larvae. Zool Zh 66:325-338 (in Russian, English summary).
137. Ivanova-Kazas OM, Ivanov AV. 1988. Trochaea theory and phylogenetic significance of ciliate larvae. Sov J Mar Biol 13:67-80.
138. Iwata F. 1958. On the development of the nemertean Micrura akkeshiensis. Embryologia 4:103-131.
139. Iwata F. 1960. Studies on the comparative embryology of nemerteans with special reference to their interrelationships. Publs Akkeshi Mar Biol Stat 10:1-51.
140. Jaeckle WJ, Rice ME. 2002. Phylum Sipuncula. In: Young CM, editor. Atlas of marine invertebrate larvae. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p 375-396.
141. Jägersten G. 1963. On the morphology and behaviour of pelagosphaera larvae (Sipunculoidea). Zool Bidr Upps 36:27-35.
142. Jägersten G. 1964. On the morphology and reproduction of entoproct larvae. Zool Bidr Upps 36:295-314.
143. Jägersten G. 1972. Evolution of the metazoan life cycle. London: Academic Press.
144. James MA. 1997. Brachiopoda: internal anatomy, embryology, and development. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 13. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 297-407.
145. James MA, Ansell AD, Collins MJ, Curry GB, Peck LS, Rhodes MC. 1992. Biology of living brachiopods. Adv Mar Biol 28:175-387.
146. Jeffery WR, Swalla BJ. 1997. Tunicates. In: Gilbert SE, Raunio AM, editors. Embryology. Constructing the organism. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p 331-364.
147. Jenner RA. 2004a. Towards a phylogeny of the Metazoa: evaluating alternative phylogenetic positions of Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, and Gnathostomulida, with a critical reappraisal of cladistic characters. Contr Zool 73:3-163.
148. Jenner RA. 2004b. When molecules and morphology clash: reconciling phylogenies of the Metazoa by considering secondary character loss. Evol Dev 6:372-376.
149. Jennings HS. 1896. The early development of Asplanchna herrickii de Guerne. A contribution to developmental mechanics. Bull Mus Comp Zool Harv 30:1-117, 10 pls.
150. Jondelius U, Ruiz-Trillo I, Baguñà J, Riutort M. 2002. The Nemertodermatida are basal bilaterians and not members of the Platyhelminthes. Zool Scr 31:201-215.
151. Jondelius U, Larsson K, Raikova O. 2004. Cleavage in Nemertoderma westbladi (Nemertodermatidae) and its phylogenetic significance. Zoomorphology 123:221-225.
152. Kato K. 1940. On the development of some Japanese polyclads. Jpn J Zool 8:537-573, pls 50-60.
153. Lacalli TC. 1982. The nervous system and ciliary band of Müller's larva. Proc R Soc Lond B 217:37-58.
154. Lacalli TC. 1983. The brain and central nervous system of Müller's larva. Can J Zool 61:39-51.
155. Lacalli TC. 1984. Structure and organization of the nervous system in the trochophore larva of Spirobranchus. Philos Trans Roy Soc B 306:79-135.
156. Lacalli TC. 1986. Prototroch structure and innervation in the trochophore larva of Phyllodoce (Polychaeta). Can J Zool 64:176-184.
157. Lacalli TC. 1988a. The suboral complex in the Müller's larva of Pseudoceros canadensis (Platyhelminthes, Polycladida). Can J Zool 66:1893-1895.
158. Lacalli TC. 1988b. The larval reticulum in Phyllodoce (Polychaeta, Phyllodocida). Zoomorphology 108:61-68.
159. Lacalli TC. 1990. Structure and organization of the nervous system in the actinotroch larva of Phoronis vancouverensis. Philos Trans Roy Soc B 327:655-685.
160. Lacalli TC, West JE. 1985. The nervous system of a pilidium larva: evidence from electron microscope reconstructions. Can J Zool 63:1909-1916.
161. Lacalli TC, West JE. 1993. A distinctive nerve cell type common to diverse deuterostome larvae: comparative data from echinoderms, hemichordates and amphioxus. Acta Zool (Stockh) 74:1-8.
162. Lacalli TC, Gilmour THJ, West JE. 1990. Ciliary band innervation in the bipinnaria larva of Pisaster ochraceus. Philos Trans Roy Soc B 330:371-390.
163. Lambert JD, Nagy LM. 2002. Asymmetric inheritance of centrosomally localized mRNAs during embryonic cleavages. Nature 420:682-686.
164. Lanfranchi A, Bedini C, Ferrero E. 1981. The ultrastructure of the eyes in larval and adult polyclads (Turbellaria). Hydrobiologia 84:267-275.
165. Lang A. 1884. Die Polycladen (Seeplanarien) des Golfes von Neapel. Fauna Flora Golf Neapel 11:1-688.
166. Lang A. 1888. Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
167. Lechner M. 1966. Untersuchungen zur Embryonalentwicklung des Rädertieres Asplanchna girodi de Guerne. Wilhelm Roux Arch Entwicklungsmech Org 157:117-173.
168. Lee DE, Brunton CHC. 2001. Novocrania, a new name for the genus Neocrania Lee & Brunton, 1986 (Brachiopoda, Craniida), preoccupied by Neocrania Davis, 1978 (Insecta, Lepidoptera). Bull Nat Hist Mus Lond, Geol 51:5.
169. Litvaitis MK, Rohde K. 1999. A molecular test of platyhelminth phylogeny: inferences from partial 28S rDNA sequences. Invertebr Biol 118:42-56.
170. Long JA, Stricker SA. 1991. Brachiopoda. In: Giese AC, Pearse JS, Pearse VB, editors. Reproduction of marine invertebrates. Pacific Grove: Blackwell Scientific Publishers; Boston: Boxwood Press. p 47-84.
171. Lorenzen S. 1996. "Rotatoria" (Rotifera), Rädertiere. In: Westheide W, Rieger R, editors. Spezielle Zoologie, Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer. p 714-722.
172. Lüter C. 1996. The median tentacle of the larva of Lingula anatina (Brachiopda) from Queensland, Australia. Aust J Zool 44:355-366.
173. Lüter C. 1997. Zur Ultrastruktur, Ontogenese und Phylogenie der Brachiopoda. Göttingen: Cuvillier.
174. Lüter C. 2000a. Ultrastructure of larval and adult setae of Brachiopoda. Zool Anz 239:75-90.
175. Lüter C. 2000b. The origin of the coelom in Brachiopoda and its phylogenetic significance. Zoomorphology 120:15-28.
176. Malakhov VV. 1990. Description of the development of Ascopodaria discreta (Coloniales, Barentsiidae) and discussion of the Kamptozoa status in the animal kingdom. Zool Zh 69:20-30 (in Russian, English summary).
177. Malakhov VV, Trubitsina NV. 1998. Embryonic development of the polyclad turbellarian Pseudoceros japonicus from the Sea of Japan. Russ J Mar Biol 24:106-113.
178. Marcus E. 1939. Bryozoários marinhos brasileiros III. Bolm Fac Filos Ciênc Univ S Paulo, Zool 3:111-354.
179. Mariscal RN. 1965. The adult and larval morphology and life history of the entoproct Barentsia gracilis (M. Sars, 1835). J Morphol 116:311-338.
180. Martindale MQ, Henry JQ. 1995. Modifications of cell fate specification in equal-cleaving nemertean embryos: alternate patterns of spiralian development. Development 121:3175-3185.
181. Maslakova SA, Malakhov VV. 1999. A hidden larva in nemerteans of the order Hoplonemertini. Dokl Biol Sci 366:314-317.
182. Maslakova SA, Martindale MQ, Norenburg JL. 2004a. Fundamental properties of the spiralian development program are displayed by the basal nemertean Carinoma tremaphoros (Palaeonemertea, Nemertea). Dev Biol 267:342-360.
183. Maslakova SA, Martindale MQ, Norenburg JL. 2004b. Vestigial prototroch in a basal nemertean, Carinoma tremaphoros (Nemertea; Palaeonemertea). Evol Dev 6:219-226.
184. Mattiesen E. 1904. Ein Beitrag zur Embryologie der Sü sswasserdendrocoelen. Z Wiss Zool 77:274-361, pls 10-13.
185. McEdward LR. 2000. Adaptive evolution of larvae and life cycles. Sem Cell Dev Biol 11:403-409.
186. Melone G, Ricci C. 1995. Rotatory apparatus in Bdelloids. Hydrobiologia 313/314:91-98.
187. Morgan TH. 1894. The development of Balanoglossus. J Morphol 9:1-86.
188. Morris J, Nallur R, Ladurner P, Egger B, Rieger R, Hartenstein V. 2004. The embryonic development of the flatworm Macrostomum sp. Dev Genes Evol 214:220-239.
189. Morse ES. 1902. Observations on living Brachiopoda. Mem Boston Soc Nat Hist 5:313-386, pls 39-61.
190. Mukai H, Terakado K, Reed CG. 1997. Bryozoa. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopical anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 13. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 45-206.
191. Nachtwey R. 1925. Untersuchungen über die Keimbahn, Organogenese und Anatomie von Asplanchna priodonta Gosse. Z Wiss Zool 126:239-492, pls 6-13.
192. Nakano H, Hibino T, Oji T, Hara Y, Amemiya S. 2003. Larval stages of a living sea lily (stalked crinoid echinoderm). Nature 421:158-160.
193. Nezlin LP. 2000. Tornaria of hemichordates and other dipleurula-type larvae: a comparison. J Zool Syst Evol Res 38:149-156.
194. Nielsen C. 1967. The larvae of Loxosoma pectinaricola and Loxosomella elegans (Entoprocta). Ophelia 4:203-206.
195. Nielsen C. 1971. Entoproct life-cycles and the entoproct/ectoproct relationship. Ophelia 9:209-341.
196. Nielsen C. 1979. Larval ciliary bands and metazoan phylogeny. Fortschr Zool Syst Evol 1:178-184.
197. Nielsen C. 1985. Animal phylogeny in the light of the trochaea theory. Biol J Linn Soc 25:243-299.
198. Nielsen C. 1987. Structure and function of metazoan ciliary bands and their phylogenetic significance. Acta Zool (Stockh) 68:205-262.
199. Nielsen C. 1991. The development of the brachiopod Crania (Neocrania) anomala (O.F. Müller) and its phylogenetic significance. Acta Zool (Stockh) 72:7-28.
200. Nielsen C. 1998. Origin and evolution of animal life cycles. Biol Rev 73:125-155.
201. Nielsen C. 2001. Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
202. Nielsen C. 2002. Ciliary filter-feeding structures in adult and larval gymnolaemate bryozoans. Invertebr Biol 121:255-261.
203. Nielsen C. 2003. Defining phyla: morphological and molecular clues to metazoan evolution. Evol Dev 5:386-393.
204. Nielsen C. 2004. Trochophora larvae: cell lineages, ciliary bands and body regions. 1. Annelida and Mollusca. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 302B:35-68.
205. Nielsen C, Jespersen Å. 1997. Entoprocta. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 13. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 13-43.
206. Nielsen C, Martinez P. 2003. Patterns of gene expression: homology or homocracy? Dev Genes Evol 213:149-154.
207. Nielsen C, Scharff N, Eibye-Jacobsen D. 1996. Cladistic analyses of the animal kingdom. Biol J Linn Soc 57:385-410.
208. Norenburg JL, Stricker SA. 2002. Phylum Nemertea. In: Young CM, editor. Atlas of marine invertebrate larvae. San Diego: Academic Press. p 163-177.
209. Pan SC. 1980. The fine structure of the miracidium of Schistosoma mansoni. J Invertebr Pathol 36:307-372.
210. Peterson KJ, Eernisse DJ. 2001. Animal phylogeny and the ancestry of bilaterians: inferences from morphology and 18S rDNA sequences. Evol Dev 3:170-205.
211. Peterson KJ, Cameron RA, Tagawa K, Satoh N, Davidson EH. 1999. A comparative molecular approach to mesodermal patterning in basal deuterostomes: the expression pattern of Brachyury in the enteropneust hemichordate Ptychodera flava. Development 126:85-95.
212. Peterson KJ, Cameron RA, Davidson EH. 2000. Bilaterian origins: significance of new experimental observations. Dev Biol 219:1-17.
213. Pray FA. 1965. Studies on the early development of the rotifer Monostyla cornuta Müller. Trans Am Microsc Soc 84:210-216.
214. Raff EC, Popodi EM, Sly BJ, Turner R, Villinksi JT, Raff RA. 1999. A novel ontogenetic pathway in hybrid embryos between species with different modes of development. Development 126:1937-1945.
215. Raff EC, Popodi EM, Kauffman JS, Sly BJ, Turnar FR, Morris VB, Raff RA. 2003. Regulatory punctuated equilibrium and convergence in the evolution of developmental pathways in direct-developing sea urchins. Evol Dev 5:478-493.
216. Raikova OI, Reuter M, Gustafsson MKS, Maule AG, Halton DW, Jondelius U. 2004. Evolution of the nervous system in Paraphanostoma (Acoela). Zool Scr 33:71-88.
217. Rattenbury JC. 1954. The embryology of Phoronopsis viridis. J Morphol 95:289-349.
218. Reed CG. 1991. Bryozoa. In: Giese AC, Pearse JS, Pearse VB, editors. Reproduction of marine invertebrates, Vol. 6. Pacific Grove, CA: Boxwood Press. p 85-245.
219. Reed CG, Cloney RA. 1982. The settlement and metamorphosis of the marine bryozoan Bowerbankia gracilis (Ctenostomata: Vesicularioidea). Zoomorphology 100:103-132.
220. Reisinger E. 1924. Die Gattung Rhynchoscolex. Z Morphol Ökol Tiere 1:1-37, pls 1-2.
221. Reisinger E. 1972. Die Evolution des Orthogons der Spiralier und das
222. Reisinger E, Cichocki I, Erlach R, Szyskowitz T. 1974. Ontogenetische Studien an Turbellarien: ein Beitrag zur Evolution der Dotterverarbeitung in ektolecitalen Ei. Z Zool Syst Evol 12:161-195 & 241-278.
223. Remane A. 1929-1933. Rotifera. In: Bronn's Klassen und Ordningen des Tierreichs, 4 Band, 2 Abteilung, 1 Buch, 1-4 Lieferung. Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. p 1-576.
224. Rice ME. 1973. Morphology, behavior, and histogenesis of the pelagosphera larva of Phascolosoma agassizii (Sipuncula). Smithson Contr Zool 132:1-51.
225. Rice ME. 1975. Sipuncula. In: Giese AC, Pearse JS, editors. Reproduction of marine invertebrates, Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press. p 67-127.
226. Rice ME. 1978. Morphological and behavioral changes at metamorphosis in the Sipuncula. In: Chia F-S, Rice ME, editors. Settlement and metamorphosis of marine invertebrate larvae. New York: Elsevier. p 83-102.
227. Rice ME. 1985. Sipuncula: developmental evidence for phylogenetic inference. In: Conway Morris S, George JD, Gibson R, Platt HM, editors. The origins and relationships of lower invertebrates. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 274-296.
228. Rice ME. 1988. Observations on development and metamorphosis of Siphonosoma cumaense with comparative remarks on Sipunculus nudus (Sipuncula, Sipunculidae). Bull Mar Sci 42:1-15.
229. Rice ME. 1993. Sipuncula. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 12. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 237-325.
230. Riedl RJ. 1969. Gnathostomulida from America. Science 163:445-462.
231. Rieger RM, Tyler S, Smith JPS III, Rieger GE. 1991. Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 3. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 7-140.
232. Riisgård HU. 2002. Methods of ciliary filter feeding in adult Phoronis muelleri (phylum Phoronida) and its free-swimming actinotroch larva. Mar Biol (Berl) 141:75-87.
233. Riisgård HU, Nielsen C, Larsen PS. 2000. Downstream collecting in ciliary suspension feeders: the catch-up principle. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 207:33-51.
234. Riisgård HU, Nielsen KK, Fuchs J, Rasmussen BF, Obst M, Funch P. 2004. Ciliary feeding structures and particle capture mechanism in the freshwater bryozoan Plumatella repens (Phylactolaemata). Invertebr Biol 123:156-167.
235. Rohde K, Watson NA, Chisholm LA. 1999. Ultrastructure of the eyes of the larva of Neoheterocotyle rhinobatidis (Platyhelminthes, Monopisthocotylea), and phylogenetic implications. Int J Parasitol 29:511-519.
236. Rouse GW. 1999. Trochophore concepts: ciliary bands and the evolution of larvae in spiralian Metazoa. Biol J Linn Soc 66:411-464.
237. Rouse G. 2000a. Bias? What bias? The evolution of downstream larval-feeding in animals. Zool Scr 29:213-236.
238. Rouse GW. 2000b. The epitome of hand waving? Larval feeding and hypotheses of metazoan phylogeny. Evol Dev 2:222-233.
239. Rouse G. 2000c. Polychaetes have evolved feeding larvae numerous times. Bull Mar Sci 67:391-409.
240. Rowell AJ. 1960. Some early stages in the development of the brachiopod Crania anomala (Müller). Ann Mag Nat Hist, 13. ser. 3:35-56.
241. Ruiz-Trillo I, Paps J, Loukota M, Ribera C, Jondelius U, Baguñá J, Riutort M. 2002. A phylogenetic analysis of myosin heavy chain type II sequences corroborates that Acoela and Nemertodermatida are basal bilaterians. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:11246-11251.
242. Ruppert EE. 1978. A review of metamorphosis of turbellarian larvae. In: Chia F-S, Rice ME, editors. Settlement and metamorphosis of marine invertebrate larvae. New York: Elsevier. p 65-81.
243. Ruppert EE, Balser EJ. 1986. Nephridia in the larvae of hemichordates and echinoderms. Biol Bull Woods Hole 171:188-196.
244. Ruppert EE, Rice ME. 1983. Structure, ultrastructure, and function of the terminal organ of a pelagosphaera larva (Sipuncula). Zoomorphology 102:143-163.
245. Ruppert EE, Smith PR. 1988. The functional organization of filtration nephridia. Biol Rev 63:231-258.
246. Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD. 2003. Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (7th edition of R.D. Barnes' Invertebrate Zoology). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
247. Salensky W. 1912. Über die Metamorphose der Nemertinen. I. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Nemertine im Inneren des Pilidiums. Mém Acad Imp Sci St-Pétersb, 8 Sér, Cl Phys-Math 30:1-74, 6 pls.
248. Salvini-Plawen Lv. 1978. On the origin and evolution of the lower Metazoa. Z Zool Syst Evol 16:40-88.
249. Salvini-Plawen Lv. 1980a. Phylogenetischer Status und Bedeutung der mesenchymaten Bilateria. Zool Jb, Anat 103:354-373.
250. Salvini-Plawen Lv. 1980b. Was ist eine Trochophore? Eine Analyse der Larventypen mariner Protostomier. Zool Jb, Anat 103:389-423.
251. Santagata S. 2002. Structure and metamorphic remodeling of the larval nervous system and musculature of Phoronis pallida (Phoronida). Evol Dev 4:28-42.
252. Santagata S. 2004. Larval development of Phoronis pallida (Phoronida): implications for morphological convergence and divergence among larval body plans. J Morphol 259:347-358.
253. Santagata S, Zimmer RL. 2002. Comparison of the neuromuscular systems among actinotroch larvae: systematic and evolutionary implications. Evol Dev 4:43-54.
254. Schmidt GA. 1934. Ein zweiter Entwicklungstypus von Lineus gessneriensis O.F. Müll. (Nemertini). Zool Jb, Anat 58:607-660.
255. Schmidt GA. 1964. Embryonic development of littoral nemertines Lineus desori (mihi, species nova) and Lineus ruber (O.F. Müller, 1774, G.A. Schmidt, 1945) in connection with ecological relation changes of mature individuals when forming the new species Lineus ruber. Zool Polon 14:75-122.
256. Scotland RW, Olmstead RG, Bennett JR. 2003. Phylogeny reconstruction: the role of morphology. Syst Biol 52:539-548.
257. Segers H. 2002. The nomenclature of the Rotifera: annotated checklist of valid family- and genus-group names. J Nat Hist 36:631-640.
258. Seilern-Asperg F. 1957. Die Entwicklung von Macrostomum appendiculatum (Fabricius). Zool Jb, Anat 76:311-330.
259. Sensenbaugh T. 1987. Ultrastructural observations on the larva of Loxosoma pectinaricola Franzén (Entoprocta, Loxosomatidae). Acta Zool (Stockh) 68:135-145.
260. Shankland M, Savage RM. 1997. Annelids, the segmented worms. In: Gilbert SF, Raunio AM, editors. Embryology. Constructing the organism. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. p 219-235.
261. Shankland M, Seaver EC. 2000. Evolution of the bilaterian body plan: what have we learned from annelids? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4434-4437.
262. Silén L. 1954. On the nervous system of Phoronis. Ark Zool, 2 ser 6:1-40.
263. Silvester NR, Sleigh MA. 1984. Hydrodynamic aspects of particle capture by Mytilus. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. UK 64:859-897.
264. Sly BJ, Snoke MS, Rakk RA. 2003. Who came first - larvae or adults? Origins of bilaterian metazoan larvae. Int J Dev Biol 47:623-632.
265. Sørensen MV. 2002. On the evolution and morphology of the rotiferan trophi, with a cladistic analysis of Rotifera. J Zool Syst Evol Res 40:129-154.
266. Spengel JW. 1893. Die Enteropneusten des Golfes von Neapel. Fauna Flora Golf Neapel 18:1-758.
267. Storch V, Herrmann K. 1978. Podocytes in the blood vessel linings of Phoronis muelleri (Phoronida, Tentaculata). Cell Tissue Res 190:553-556.
268. Strathmann RR. 1985. Feeding and nonfeeding larval development and life-history evolution in marine invertebrates. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 16:339-361.
269. Strathmann R, Bonar D. 1976. Ciliary feeding of tornaria larvae of Ptychodera flava (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta). Mar Biol (Berl) 34:317-324.
270. Strathmann RR, Bone Q. 1997. Ciliary feeding assisted by suction from the muscular oral hood of phoronid larvae. Biol Bull Woods Hole 193:153-162.
271. Strathmann RR, McEdward LR. 1986. Cyphonautes' ciliary sieve brakes a biological rule of inference. Biol Bull Woods Hole 171:754-760.
272. Strathmann RR, Jahn TL, Fonseca JR. 1972. Suspension feeding by marine invertebrate larvae: clearance of particles by ciliated bands of a rotifer, pluteus, and trochophore. Biol Bull Woods Hole 142:505-519.
273. Stricker SA. 1987. Ultrastructure of the apical organ in a cyphonautes larva. In: Ross JRP, editor. Bryozoa: present and past. Bellingham: Western Washington University. p 261-268.
274. Stricker SA, Reed CG. 1985a. The ontogeny of shell secretion in Terebratalia transversa (Brachiopoda, Articulata) I. Development of the mantle. J Morphol 183:233-250.
275. Stricker SA, Reed CG. 1985b. The ontogeny of shell secretion in Terebratalia transversa (Brachiopoda, Articulata) II. Formation of the protegulum and juvenile shell. J Morphol 183:251-271.
276. Stricker SA, Reed CG, Zimmer RL. 1988a. The cyphonautes larva of the marine bryozoan Membranipora membranacea. I. General morphology, body wall, and gut. Can J Zool 66:368-383.
277. Stricker SA, Reed CG, Zimmer RL. 1988b. The cyphonautes larva of the marine bryozoan Membranipora membranacea. II. Internal sac, musculature, and pyriform organ. Can J Zool 66:384-398.
278. Sundberg P, Turbeville JM, Lindh S. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships among higher nemertean (Nemertea) taxa inferred from 18S rDNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol 20:327-334.
279. Surface FM. 1907. The early development of a polyclad, Planocera inquilina Wh. Proc Acad Natl Sci Phila 59: 514-559, pls 35-40.
280. Tannreuther GW. 1920. The development of Asplanchna ebbersbornii (Rotifer). J Morphol 33:389-437.
281. Telford MJ, Budd BE. 2003. The place of phylogeny and cladistics in Evo-Devo research. Int J Dev Biol 47:479-490.
282. Telford MJ, Lockyer AE, Cartwright-Finch C, Littlewood DTJ. 2003. Combined large and small subunit ribosomal RNA phylogenies support a basal position of the acoelomorph flatworms. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 270:1077-1083.
283. Temkin MH. 1996. Comparative fertilization biology of gymnolaemate bryozoans. Mar Biol (Berl) 127:329-339.
284. Thollesson M, Norenburg JL. 2002. Ribbon worm relationships: a phylogeny of of the phylum Nemertea. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 270:407-415.
285. Turbeville JM. 1991. Nemertinea. In: Harrison FW, editor. Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, Vol. 3. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 285-328.
286. Tyler S. 1981. Development of cilia in embryos of the turbellarian Macrostomum. Hydrobiologia 84:231-239.
287. Tyler S, Tyler MS. 1997. Origin of the epidermis in parasitic platyhelminths. Int J Parasitol 27:715-738.
288. van den Biggelaar JAM. 1996. Cleavage pattern and mesentoblast formation in Acanthochiton crinitus (Polyplacophora, Mollusca). Dev Biol 174:423-430.
289. van den Biggelaar JAM, Dictus WJAG, van Loon AE. 1997. Cleavage patterns, cell lineages and cell specification are clues to phyletic lineages in Spiralia. Sem Cell Dev Biol 8:367-378.
290. Vernet G. 1974. Étude ultrastructurale de cellules présumées photoréceptrices dans les ganglions cérébroïdes des Lineidæ (Hétéronemertes). Ann Sci Nat, Zool, 12 Ser 16:27-36.
291. Wallace RL, Ricci C, Melone G. 1996. A cladistic analysis of pseudocoelomate (aschelminth) morphology. Invertebr Biol 115:104-112.
292. Wenzel C, Ehlers U, Lanfranchi A. 1992. The larval protone-phridium of Stylochus mediterraneus Galleni (Polycladida, Plathelminthes): an ultrastructural analysis. Microfauna Mar 7:323-340.
293. Wesenberg-Lund C. 1899. Danmarks Rotifera. I. Grundtrækkene i Rotiferernes Økologi, Morfologi og Systematik. Vidensk Meddr Dansk Naturh Foren 56:1-145, 2 pls.
294. Westheide W, Rieger R. 1996. Spezielle Zoologie, Teil 1: Einzeller und wirbellose Tiere. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
295. Wilson EB. 1898. Considerations on cell lineage and ancestral reminiscence. Ann NY Acad Sci 11:1-27.
296. Wilson EB. 1903. Experiments on cleavage and localization in the nemertine egg. Arch EntwMech Org 16:411-460.
297. Woollacott RM, Eakin RM. 1973. Ultrastructure of a potential photoreceptor organ in the larva of an entoproct. J Ultrastruct Res 43:412-425.
298. Wray GA. 1994. The evolution of cell lineage in echinoderms. Am Zool 34:353-363.
299. Wray GA. 1995. Evolution of larvae and developmental modes. In: McEdward L, editor. Ecology of marine invertebrate larvae. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p 413-447.
300. Yatsu N. 1902. On the development of Lingula anatina. J Coll Sci Imp Univ Tokyo 17:1-112.
301. Younossi-Hartenstein A, Hartenstein V. 2000. The embryonic development of the polyclad flatworm Imagine mcgrathi. Dev Genes Evol 210:383-398.
302. Younossi-Hartenstein A, Ehlers U, Hartenstein V. 2000. Embryonic development of the nervous system of the rhabdocoel flatworm Mesostoma lingua (Abildgaard, 1789). J Comp Neurol 416:461-474.
303. Zelinka C. 1891. Studien über Räderthiere. III. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Räderthiere nebst Bemerkungen über ihre Anatomie und Biologie. Z Wiss Zool 53:1-159, pls 1-6.
304. Zimmer RL 1964. Reproductive biology and development of phoronida. PhD thesis, University of Washington.
305. Zimmer RL. 1973. Morphological and developmental affinities of the lophophorates. In: Larwood GP, editor. Living and fossil Bryozoa. London: Academic Press. p 593-599.
306. Zimmer RL. 1980. Mesoderm proliferation and formation of the protocoel and metacoel in early embryos of Phoronis vancouverensis (Phoronida). Zool Jb, Anat 103:219-233.
307. Zimmer RL. 1991. Phoronida. In: Giese AC, Pearse JS, Pearse VB, editors. Reproduction of marine invertebrates. Pacific Grove, CA: Boxwood Press. p 1-45.
308. Zimmer RL. 1997. Phoronids, brachiopods, and bryozoans, the lophophorates. In: Gilbert SF, Raunio AM, editors. Embryology. Constructing the organism. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. p 279-305.
309. Zrzavý J, Mihulka S, Kepka P, Bezdek A, Tietz D. 1998. Phylogeny of the Metazoa based on morphological and 18S ribosomal DNA evidence. Cladistics 14:249-285.