The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 5-25

  Happé, Francesca ^a   Frith, Uta ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Autism spectrum disorders; Central coherence; Cognitive style; Individual differences; Local global processing

Indexed keywords

AUTISM; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITION; EMPIRICISM; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SOCIAL ASPECT;

AUTISTIC DISORDER; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; SOCIAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 27644575869     PISSN: 01623257     EISSN: 15733432     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Ameli, R., Courchesne, E., Lincoln, A., Kaufman, A. S., & Grillon, C. (1988). Visual memory processes in high-functioning individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 601-615.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
3. Aurnhammer-Frith, U. (1969). Emphasis and meaning in recall in normal and autistic children. Language & Speech, 12, 29-38.
4. Barnea-Goraly, N., Kwon, H., Menon, V., Eliez, S., Lotspeich, L., & Reiss, A. L. (2004). White matter structure in autism: Preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 323-326.
5. Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 248-254.
6. Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: The truth about the male and female brain. New York, NY: Basic Books.
7. Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind'? Cognition, 21, 37-46.
8. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stott, C., Bolton, P., & Goodyer, I. (1997). Is there a link between engineering and autism? Autism, 1, 101-109.
9. Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The Systemising Quotient (SQ): An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or High Functioning Autism and normal sex differences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, Special issue on "Autism: Mind and Brain", 358, 361-374.
10. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Griffin, R., Lawson, J., & Hill, J. (2002). The exact mind: Empathising and systemising in autism spectrum conditions. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive development. (pp. 491-508). Malden, MA, USA: Blackwell Publishers.
11. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
12. Bellugi, U., Lichtenberger, L., Jones, W., Lai, Z., & St. George, M. (2000). The neurocognitive profile of Williams syndrome: A complex pattern of strengths and weaknesses. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 7-29.
13. Belmonte, M. K., Allen, G., Beckel-Mitchener, A., Boulanger, L. M., Carper, R. A., & Webb, S. J. (2004). Autism and abnormal development of brain connectivity. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 9228-9231.
14. Belmonte, M. K., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2003). Functional anatomy of impaired selective attention and compensatory processing in autism. Cognitive Brain Research, 17, 651-664.
15. Benowitz, L. I., Moya, K. L., & Levine, D. N. (1990). Impaired verbal reasoning and constructional apraxia in subjects with right hemisphere damage. Neuropsychologia, 23, 231-241.
16. Berger, H. J., Aerts, F. H., van Spaendonck, K. P., Cools, A. R., & Teunisse, J. P. (2003). Central coherence and cognitive shifting in relation to social improvement in high-functioning young adults with autism. Journal of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 25, 502-511.
17. Berger, H. J., van Spaendonck, K. P., Horstink, M. W., Buytenhuijs, E. L., Lammers, P. W., & Cools, A. R. (1993). Cognitive shifting as a predictor of progress in social understanding in high-functioning adolescents with autism: A prospective study. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 23, 341-359.
18. Bertone, A., Mottron, L., Jelenic, P., & Faubert, J. (2003). Motion perception in autism: A "complex" issue. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 15, 218-225.
19. Beversdorf, D. Q., Anderson, J. M., Manning, S. E., Anderson, S. L., Nordgren, R. E., Felopulos, G. J., Nadeau, S. E., Heilman, K. M., & Bauman, M. L. (1998). The effect of semantic and emotional context on written recall for verbal language in high functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 65, 685-692.
20. Beversdorf, D. Q., Smith, B. W., Crucian, G. P., Anderson, J. M., Keillor, J. M., Barrett, A. M., Hughes, J. D., Felopulos, G. J., Bauman, M. L., Nadeau, S. E., & Heilman, K. M. (2000). Increased discrimination of "false memories" in autism spectrum disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97, 8734-8737.
21. Bonnel, A., Mottron, L., Peretz, I., Trudel, M., Gallun, E., & Bonnel, A. M. (2003). Enhanced pitch sensitivity in individuals with autism: A signal detection analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 226-235.
22. Booth, R., Charlton, R., Hughes, C., & Happé, F. (2003). Disentangling weak coherence and executive dysfunction: Planning drawing in Autism and ADHD. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 358(1430), 387-392.
23. Brian, J. A., & Bryson, S. E. (1996). Disembedding performance and recognition memory in autism/PDD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 865-872.
24. Briskman, J., Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2001). Exploring the cognitive phenotype of autism: Weak 'central coherence' in parents and siblings of children with autism. II. Real-life skills and preferences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 309-316.
25. Brock, J., Brown, C. C., Boucher, J., & Rippon, G. (2002). The temporal binding deficit hypothesis of autism. Development & Psychopathology, 14, 209-224.
26. Brosnan, M. J., Scott, F. J., Fox, S., & Pye, J. (2004). Gestalt processing in autism: Failure to process perceptual relationships and the implications for contextual understanding. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 459-469.
27. Burack, J. A. (1994). Selective attention deficits in persons with autism: Preliminary evidence of an inefficient attentional lens. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 535-543.
28. Caron, M. J., Mottron, L., Rainville, C., & Chouinard, S. (2004). Do high functioning persons with autism present superior spatial abilities? Neuropsychologia, 42, 467-481.
29. Castelli, F., Frith, C., Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2002). Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes. Brain, 125, 1839-1849.
30. Chen, Y., Nakayama, K., Levy, D., Matthysse, S., & Holzman, P. (2003). Processing of global, but not local, motion direction is deficient in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 61, 215-227.
31. Chugani, D. C., Muzik, O., Behen, M., Rothermel, R., Janisse, J. J., Lee, J., & Chugani, H. T. (1999). Developmental changes in brain serotonin synthesis capacity in autistic and nonautistic children. Annals of Neurology, 45, 287-295.
32. Chung, M. K., Dalton, K. M., Alexander, A. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Less white matter concentration in autism: 2D voxel-based morphometry. Neuroimage, 23, 242-251.
33. Chynn, E. W., Garrod, A., Demick, J., & DeVos, E. (1991). Correlations among field dependence-independence, sex, sex-role stereotype, and age of preschoolers. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 747-756.
34. Cohen, I. L. (1994). An artificial neural network analogue of learning in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 36, 5-20.
35. Courchesne, E. (2004). Brain development in autism: Early overgrowth followed by premature arrest of growth. Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10, 106-111.
36. DeGelder, B., Vroomen, J., & Van der Heide, L. (1991). Face recognition and lip-reading in autism. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 3, 69-86.
37. Dennis, M., Lazenby, A. L., & Lockyer, L. (2001). Inferential language in high-functioning children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 47-54.
38. Derryberry, D., & Tucker, D. M. (1994). Motivating the focus of attention. In P. M. Neidenthal, & S. Kiayama (Eds.), The heart's eye: Emotional influences in perception and attention. (pp. 167-196). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
39. Deruelle, C., Rondan, C., Gepner, B., & Tardif, C. (2004). Spatial frequency and face processing in children with autism and Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 199-210.
40. Eskes, G. A., Bryson, S. E., & McCormick, T. A. (1990). Comprehension of concrete and abstract words in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20, 61-73.
41. Fink, G. R., Halligan, P. W., Marshall, J. C., Frith, C. D., Frackowiak, R. S., & Dolan, R. J. (1997). Neural mechanisms involved in the processing of global and local aspects of hierarchically organized visual stimuli. Brain, 120, 1779-1791.
42. Foxton, J. M., Stewart, M. E., Barnard, L., Rodgers, J., Young, A. H., O'Brien, G., & Griffiths, T. D. (2003). Absence of auditory 'global interference' in autism. Brain, 126, 2703-2709.
43. Friston, K. J., & Buechel, C. (2000). Attentional modulation of effective connectivity from V2 to V5/MT in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97, 75912-75916.
44. Frith, U. (1970). Studies in pattern detection in normal and autistic children: II. Reproduction and production of color sequences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 10, 120-135.
45. Frith, C. (2003). What do imaging studies tell us about the neural basis of autism? Novartis Foundation Symposium, 251, 149-166.
46. Frith, C. (2004). Is autism a disconnection disorder? Lancet Neurology, 3, 577.
47. Frith, U., (1989). Autism: explaining the Enigma. Blackwell.
48. Frith, U., & Happé, F. (1994). Autism: beyond "theory of mind". Cognition, 50, 115-132.
49. Frith, U., & Snowling, M. (1983). Reading for meaning and reading for sound in autistic and dyslexic children. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1, 329-342.
50. Gasper, K., & Clore, G. L. (2002). Attending to the big picture: Mood and global versus local processing of visual information. Psychological Science, 13, 34-40.
51. Gepner, B., Mestre, D. R., Masson, G., & de Schonen, S. (1995). Postural effects of motion vision in young autistic children. Neuroreport, 6, 1211-1214.
52. Gepner, B., & Mestre, D. R. (2002). Brief report: Postural reactivity to fast visual motion differentiates autistic from children with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 32, 231-238.
53. Gerland, G. (1997). A real person: Life on the outside [Translated from the Swedish by J. Tate]. Souvenir Press.
54. Gustafsson, L. (1997). Inadequate cortical feature maps: A neural circuit theory of autism. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 1138-1147.
55. Happé, F. G. E. (1994). Wechsler IQ profile and theory of mind in autism: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1461-1471.
56. Happé, F. G. E. (1996). Studying weak central coherence at low levels: Children with autism do not succumb to visual illusions, a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 873-877.
57. Happé, F. G. E. (1997). Central coherence and theory of mind in autism: Reading homographs in context. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1-12.
58. Happé, F. (1999). Autism: Cognitive deficit or cognitive style? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 216-222.
59. Happé, F. (2000). Parts and wholes, meaning and minds: Central coherence and its relation to theory of mind. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from autism and developmental cognitive neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
60. Happé, F. (2001). Social and non-social development in Autism: Where are the links? In J. A. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), Perspectives on development in autism. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
61. Happé, F. (2003). Cognition in autism: One deficit or many? Autism: Neural basis and treatment possibilities (Novartis Foundation Symposium 251). Chichester: Wiley 198-212.
62. Happé, F., & Booth, R. (in preparation). Sentence completion: a simple test of weak coherence in typical development, autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
63. Happé, F., Briskman, J., & Frith, U. (2001). Exploring the cognitive phenotype of autism: Weak 'central coherence' in parents and siblings of children with autism. I. Experimental tests. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 299-307.
64. Heaton, P. (2003). Pitch memory, labelling and disembedding in autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 44, 543-551.
65. Heaton, P., Hermelin, B., & Pring, L. (1998). Autism and pitch processing: a precursor for savant musical ability. Music Perception, 15, 291-305.
66. Heavey, L. (2003). Arithmetical savants. In A. J. Baroody, & A. Dowker (Eds.), The development of arithmetic concepts and skills: Constructing adaptive expertise. Studies in mathematical thinking and learning. (pp. 409-433). Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
67. Heavey, L., Pring, L., & Hermelin, B. (1999). A date to remember: The nature of memory in savant calendrical calculators. Psychological Medicine, 29, 145-160.
68. Heinze, H. J., Hinrichs, H., Scholz, M., Burchert, W., & Mangun, G. R. (1998). Neural mechanisms of global and local processing: A combined PET and ERP study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 485-498.
69. Hermelin, B., & O'Connor, N. (1967). Remembering of words by psychotic and subnormal children. British Journal of Psychology, 58, 213-218.
70. Hesse, F. W., & Spies, K. (1996). Effects of negative mood on performance: Reduced capacity or changed processing strategy? European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 163-168.
71. Hobson, R. P., Ouston, J., & Lee, T. (1988). What's in a face? The case of autism. British Journal of Psychology, 79, 441-453.
72. Jarrold, C., Butler, D. W., Cottington, E. M., & Jimenez, F. (2000). Linking theory of mind and central coherence bias in autism and in the general population. Developmental Psychology, 36, 126-138.
73. Jarrold, C., & Russell, J. (1997). Counting abilities in autism: Possible implications for central coherence theory. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27, 25-37.
74. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 527-534.
75. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). A test of central coherence theory; linguistic processing in high-functioning adults with autism or Asperger's syndrome: Is local coherence impaired? Cognition, 71, 149-185.
76. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2000). Linguistic processing in high-functioning adults with autism or Asperger's syndrome. Is global coherence impaired? Psychological Medicine, 30, 1169-1187.
77. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). A test of central coherence theory: Can adults with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome integrate fragments of an object? Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 6, 193-216.
78. John, C. H., & Hemsley, D. R. (1992). Gestalt perception in schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 241, 215-221.
79. Just, M. A., Cherkassky, V. L., Keller, T. A., & Minshew, N. J. (2004). Cortical activation and synchronization during sentence comprehension in high-functioning autism: Evidence of underconnectivity. Brain, 127, 1811-1821.
80. Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217-250.
81. Klinger, L. G., & Dawson, G. (2001). Prototype formation in autism. Development & Psychopathology, 13, 111-124.
82. Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., Blusewicz, M. J., & Preston, K. A. (1991). Visual hierarchical analysis of block design configural errors. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 455-465.
83. Kramer, J. H., Ellenberg, L., Leonard, J., & Share, L. J. (1996). Developmental sex differences in global-local perceptual bias. Neuropsychology, 10, 402-407.
84. Langdell, T. (1978). Recognition of faces: An approach to the study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 19, 255-268.
85. Lawson, J., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). Empathising and systemising in adults with and without Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 34, 301-310.
86. Lee, T. S. (2002). Top-down influence in early visual processing: A Bayesian perspective. Physiology and Behaviour, 77, 645-650.
87. Lopez, B., Donnelly, N., Hadwin, J., & Leekam, S. R. (2004). Face processing in high-functioning adolescents with autism: Evidence for weak central coherence. Visual Cognition, 11, 673-688.
88. Lopez, B., & Leekam, S. R. (2003). Do children with autism fail to process information in context? Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 44, 285-300.
89. Mann, T. A., & Walker, P. (2003). Autism and a deficit in broadening the spread of visual attention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 274-284.
90. Marendaz, C. (1985). Global precedence and field dependence: Visual routines? Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive, 5, 727-745.
91. McClelland, J. L. (2000). The basis of hyperspecificity in autism: A preliminary suggestion based on properties of neural nets. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 30, 497-502.
92. McKelvey, J. R., Lambert, R., Mottron, L., & Shevell, M. I. (1995). Right-hemisphere dysfunction in Asperger's syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 10, 310-314.
93. Mevorach, C, Humphreys, G. W., & Shalev, L. (2005). Attending to local form while ignoring global aspects depends on handedness: evidence from TMS. Nature Neuroscience, published online doi: 10.1038/nn1400.
94. Miller, L. K. (1999). The savant syndrome: Intellectual impairment and exceptional skill. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 31-46.
95. Milne, E. (2003). Investigating the correlates of weak central coherence in autism. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
96. Milne, E., Swettenham, J., Hansen, P., Campbell, R., Jeffries, H., & Plaisted, K. I. (2002). High motion coherence thresholds in children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 43, 255-263.
97. Morgan, B., Maybery, M., & Durkin, K. (2003). Weak central coherence, poor joint attention, and low verbal ability: Independent deficits in early autism. Developmental Psychology, 39, 646-656.
98. Mottron, L., & Belleville, S. (1993). A study of perceptual analysis in a high-level autistic subject with exceptional graphic abilities. Brain and Cognition, 23, 279-309.
99. Mottron, L., Belleville, S., & Ménard, A. (1999). Local bias in autistic subjects as evidenced by graphic tasks: Perceptual hierarchization or working memory deficit? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 743-755.
100. Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., Belleville, S., & Enns, J. T. (2003). Locally oriented perception with intact global processing among adolescents with high-functioning autism: Evidence from multiple paradigms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 904-913.
101. Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Stauder, J. E. A., & Robaey, P. (1999). Perceptual processing among high-functioning persons with autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 40, 203-211.
102. Mottron, L., & Burack, J. A. (2001). Enhanced perceptual functioning in the development of autism. In J. A. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), The development of autism: Perspectives from theory and research. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
103. Mottron, L., Morasse, K., & Belleville, S. (2001). A study of memory functioning in individuals with autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 42, 253-260.
104. Mottron, L., Peretz, I., & Menard, E. (2000). Local and global processing of music in high-functioning persons with autism: Beyond central coherence? Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 41, 1057-1065.
105. Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 353-383.
106. Navon, D. (2003). What does a compound letter tell the psychologist's mind? Acta Psychologica, 114, 273-309.
107. Norbury, C. F., & Bishop, D. M. V. (2002). Inferential processing and story recall in children with communication problems: A comparison of specific language impairment, pragmatic language impairment and high-functioning autism. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 37, 227-251.
108. O'Riordan, M. A., Plaisted, K. C., Driver, J., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). Superior visual search in autism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 27, 719-730.
109. O'Loughlin, C., & Thagard, P. (2000). Autism and coherence: A computational model. Mind & Language, 15, 375-392.
110. Ozonoff, S., Strayer, D. L., McMahon, W. M., & Filloux, F. (1994). Executive function abilities in autism and Tourette syndrome: An information processing approach. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1015-1032.
111. Pellicano, E., Gibson, L., Maybery, M., Durkin, K., & Badcock, D. R. (2005). Abnormal global processing along the dorsal visual pathway in autism: A possible mechanism for weak visuospatial coherence? Neuropsychologia, 43, 1044-1053.
112. Pellicano, E., Maybery, M., & Durkin, K. (2005). Central coherence in typically developing preschoolers: Does it coherence and does it relate to mindreading and executive control? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 4, 533-547.
113. Plaisted, K. C. (2000). Aspects of autism that theory of mind cannot easily explain. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from autism and cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
114. Plaisted, K. C. (2001). Reduced generalization in autism: An alternative to weak central coherence. In J. A. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), The development of autism: Perspectives from theory and research. (pp. 149-169). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
115. Plaisted, K. C., O'Riordan, M. A. F., Aitken, M. R. F., Killcross, A. S. (submitted for publication). Catergorisation in autism: Evidence for a reduced prototype effect.
116. Plaisted, K., O'Riordan, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1998a). Enhanced visual search for a conjunctive target in autism: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 39, 777-783.
117. Plaisted, K., O'Riordan, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1998b). Enhanced discrimination of novel, highly similar stimuli by adults with autism during a perceptual learning task. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 39, 765-775.
118. Plaisted, K., Saksida, L., Alcantara, J., & Weisblatt, E. (2003). Towards an understanding of the mechanisms of weak central coherence effects: Experiments in visual configural learning and auditory perception. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London - Series B: Biological Sciences, 358, 375-386.
119. Plaisted, K., Swettenham, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Children with autism show local precedence in a divided attention task and global precedence in a selective attention task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 733-742.
120. Pring Hermelin, L. B. (1993). Bottle, tulip and wineglass: Semantic and structural picture processing by savant artists. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1365-1385.
121. Pring, L., Hermelin, B., & Heavey, L. (1995). Savants, segments, art and autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1065-1076.
122. Rincover, A., & Koegel, R. L. (1975). Setting generality and stimulus control in autistic children. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 8, 235-246.
123. Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Moss, S. A., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2000). Atypical interference of local detail on global processing in high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 41, 769-778.
124. Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Moss, S. A., Brereton, A. V., & Tonge, B. J. (2001). A deficit in shifting attention present in high-functioning autism but not Asperger's disorder. Autism, 5, 67-80.
125. Ring, H. A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Williams, S. C., Brammer, M., Andrew, C., & Bullmore, E. T. (1999). Cerebral correlates of preserved cognitive skills in autism: A functional MRI study of embedded figures task performance. Brain, 122, 1305-1315.
126. Robertson, L. C., & Lamb, M. R. (1991). Neuropsychological contribution to theories of part/whole organization. Cognitive Psychology, 23, 299-330.
127. Ronald, A., Happé, F., & Plomin, R. (2005). The genetic relationship between individual differences in social and nonsocial behaviours characteristic of autism. Developmental Science, 8, 444-458.
128. Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (1999). Are individuals with autism and Asperger's syndrome susceptible to visual illusions? Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 40, 1283-1293.
129. Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (2001). Susceptibility to illusions and performance on visuospatial tasks in individuals with autism. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 42, 539-549.
130. Rouse, H., Donnelly, N., Hadwin, J. A., & Brown, T. (2004). Do children with autism perceive second-order relational features? The case of the Thatcher illusion. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 45, 1246-1257.
131. Scheuffgen, K. (1998). Domain-general and domain-specific deficits in autism and dyslexia. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
132. Scott, F. J., Brosnan, M. J., & Wheelwright, S. (submitted for publication). Perception of illusions by people with autism: Is there a low-level central coherence deficit?
133. Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1983). An islet of ability in autistic children: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 613-620.
134. Shah, A., & Frith, U. (1993). Why do autistic individuals show superior performance on the Block Design task? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1351-1364.
135. Snowling, M., & Frith, U. (1986). Comprehension in 'hyperlexic' readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 42, 392-415.
136. Spencer, J., O'Brien, J., Riggs, K., Braddick, O., Atkinson, J., & Wattam-Bell, J. (2000). Motion processing in autism: Evidence for a dorsal stream deficiency. Neuroreport, 11, 2765-2767.
137. Stiles-Davis, J., Janowsky, J., Engel, M., & Nass, R. (1988). Drawing ability in four young children with congenital unilateral brain lesions. Neuropsychologia, 26, 359-371.
138. Stoecker, J. J., Colombo, J., Frick, J. E., & Allen, J. R. (1998). Long- and short-looking infants' recognition of symmetrical and asymmetrical forms. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 63-78.
139. Suzuki, S., & Cavanagh, P. (1995). Facial organization blocks access to low-level features: An object inferiority effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human perception and Performance, 21, 901-913.
140. Tager-Flusberg, H. (1991). Semantic processing in the free recall of autistic children: Further evidence for a cognitive deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 417-430.
141. Teunisse, J.-P., Cools, A. R., van Spaendonck, K. P. M., Aerts, F. H., & Berger, H. J. (2001). Cognitive styles in high-functioning adolescents with autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 55-66.
142. Teunisse, J. P., & de Gelder, B. (2003). Face processing in adolescents with autistic disorder: The inversion and composite effects. Brain & Cognition, 52, 285-294.
143. Uhlhaas, P. J., Silverstein, S. M., Phillips, W. A., & Lovell, P. G. (2004). Evidence for impaired visual context processing in schizotypy with thought disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 68, 249-260.
144. Volberg, G., & Hubner, R. (2004). On the role of response conflicts and stimulus position for hemispheric differences in global/local processing: An ERP study. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1805-1813.
145. Waiter, G. D., Williams, J. H., Murray, A. D., Gilchrist, A., Perrett, D. I., & Whiten, A. (2005). Structural white matter deficits in high-functioning individuals with autistic spectrum disorder: A voxel-based investigation. Neuroimage, 24, 455-461.
146. Witkin, H. A., Dyk, R. B., Faterson, H. F., Goodenough, D. R., & Karp, S. K. (1962). Psychological differentiation. New York: Wiley.
147. Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive styles: Essence and origins. New York: International University Press.