Social, psychological, and psychiatric interventions following terrorist attacks: Recommendations for practice and research

Neuropsychopharmacology

Volumn 30, Issue 10, 2005, Pages 1806-1817

  Foa, Edna B ^a   Cahill, Shawn P ^a   Boscarino, Joseph A ^b   Hobfoll, Stevan E ^c,d   Lahad, Mooli ^e,f   McNally, Richard J ^g   Solomon, Zahava ^h  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b NEW YORK ACADEMY OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d SUMMA HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

^e TEL HAI COLLEGE   (Israel)

^f UNIVERSITY OF ROEHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^g HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^h TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); Prevention; Terrorism; Trauma; Trauma intervention

Indexed keywords

FLUOXETINE; PAROXETINE; SERTRALINE;

ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL WARFARE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; HISTORY; HUMAN; ISRAEL; PANIC; POPULATION; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESEARCH; STRESS; TERRORISM; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES; WAR;

HEALTH PLANNING GUIDELINES; HUMANS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; TERRORISM;

EID: 27144454344     PISSN: 0893133X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300815     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Ahern J, Galea S, Resnick H, Kilpatrick D, Bucuvalas M, Gold J et al (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry 65: 289-300.
2. Antonovsky A (1987). Unraveling the Mystery of Health. Jossey-Bass: San Fransisco.
3. Aspinwall LG, Taylor SE (1997). A stitch in time: self regulation and proactive coping. Psychol Bull 121: 417-436.
4. Ayalon O, Lahad M (2000). Life on the Edge: Coping with War, Terror and Violence. Nord Publications (Hebrew): Haifa.
5. Bandura A (1997). Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W.H. Freeman & Company: New York.
6. Becker CB, Zayfert C, Anderson E (2004). A survey of psychologists' attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behav Res Ther 42: 277-292.
7. Bendor A, Gelkopf M, Sigal M (1993). Insanity and war: the Gulf War and the psychiatric institution. Am J Psychother 47: 424-442.
8. Bisson JI, Jenkins PL, Alexander J, Bannister C (1997). Randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of acute burn trauma. Br J Psychiatry 171: 78-81.
9. Blanchard EB, Hickling EJ, Barton KA, Taylor AE (1996). One-year prospective follow-up of motor vehicle accident victims. Behav Res Ther 34: 775-786.
10. Blanchard EB, Hickling EJ, Devineni T, Veazey k CH, Galovski TE, Mundy E et al (2003). A controlled evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behav Res Ther 41: 79-96.
11. Boscarino JA, Figley CR, Adams RE (2003). Fear of terrorism in New York after the September 11 terrorist attacks: implications for emergency mental health and preparedness. Int J Emerg Mental Health 5: 199-209.
12. Boscarino JA, Figley CR, Adams RE (2004). Compassion fatigue following the September 11 terrorist attacks: a study of secondary trauma among New York City social workers. Int J Emerg Mental Health 6: 57-66.
13. Boscarino JA, Galea S, Adams RE, Ahern J, Resnick H, Vlahov D (2004). Mental health service and psychiatric medication use following the terrorist attacks in New York City. Psychiatr Serv 55: 274-283.
14. Boscarino JA, Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, Vlahov D (2002). Utilization of mental health services following the September 11th terrorist attacks in Manhattan, New York City. Int J Emerg Mental Health 4: 143-155.
15. Brady K, Pearlstein T, Asnis GM, Baker D, Rothbaum B, Sikes CR et al (2000). Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA 283: 1837-1844.
16. Braun P, Greenberg D, Dasberg H, Lerer B (1990). Core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder unimproved by alprazolam treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 51: 236-238.
17. Bravata DM, McDonald KM, Szeto H, Smith WM, Rydzak C, Owens DK (2004). A conceptual framework for evaluating information technologies and decision support systems for bioterrorism preparedness and response. Med Decision Making 24: 192-206.
18. Bremner JD, Southwick SM, Johnson DR, Yehuda R, Charney DS (1993). Childhood physical abuse and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatry 150: 235-239.
19. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreske P, Peterson E (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 216-222.
20. Bryant RA, Harvey AG, Sackville T, Dang ST, Basten C (1998). Treatment of acute stress disorder: a comparison between cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol 66: 862-866.
21. Bryant RA, Moulds M, Guthrie R, Nixon RDV (2003a). Treating acute stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 160: 585-587.
22. Bryant RA, Moulds ML, Guthrie RM, Dang ST, Nixon RD (2003b). Imaginal exposure alone and imaginal exposure with cognitive restructuring in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 71: 706-712.
23. Bryant RA, Sackville T, Dangh ST, Moulds M, Guthrie R (1999). Treating acute stress disorder: an evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1780-1786.
24. Carlier IVE, Lamberts RD, van Uchelen AJ, Gersons BPR (1998). Disaster-related post-traumatic stress in police officers: a field study of the impact of debriefing. Stress Med 14: 143-148.
25. Carlier IVE, Voerman AE, Gersons BPR (2000). The influence of occupational debriefing on post-traumatic stress symptomatology in traumatized police officers. Br J Med Psychol 73: 87-98.
26. Carmeli A, Mevorach L, Leiberman N, Taubman A, Kahnovitz S, Navon D (1992). The Gulf War: the home front in a test of crisis. Final Report. Department of Behavioral Sciences, Israel Defense Forces.
27. Cloitre M, Koenen K, Cohen LR, Han H (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: a phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol 70: 1067-1074.
28. Conlon L, Fahy TJ, Conroy R (1999). PTSD in ambulant RTA victims: a randomized controlled trial of debriefing. J Psychosom Res 46: 37-44.
29. Connor KM, Sutherland SM, Tupler LA, Malik ML, Davidson JRT (1999). Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder: randomised, double-blind study. Br J Psychiatry 175: 17-22.
30. Cooper NA, Clum GA (1989). Imaginal flooding as a supplementary treatment for PTSD in combat veterans: a controlled study. Behav Ther 20: 381-391.
31. Covello VT, Peters RG, Wojtecki JG, Hyde RC (2001). Risk communication, the West Nile virus epidemic and bioterrorism. J Urban Health 78: 382-391.
32. Davidson J, Pearlstein T, Londborg P, Brady KT, Rothbaum B, Bell J et al (2001a). Efficacy of sertraline in preventing relapse of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a 28-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 158: 1974-1981.
33. Davidson JRT, Kudler H, Smith R, Mahoney SL, Lipper S, Hammett E et al (1990). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47: 259-266.
34. Davidson JRT, Rothbaum BO, van der Kolk BA, Sikes CR, Farfel GM (2001b). Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58: 485-492.
35. DiGiovanni C (1999). Domestic terrorism with chemical or biological agents: psychiatric aspects. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1500-1505.
36. Ehlers A, Clark DM, Hackmann A, McManus F, Fennell M, Herbert C et al (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60: 1024-1032.
37. Everly Jr GS, Mitchell JT (1999). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): a New Era and Standard of Care in Crisis Intervention, 2nd edn. Chevron Publishing Corporation: Ellicott City, MD.
38. Foa EB, Cahill SP (in press). Psychosocial treatments for PTSD: an overview. In: Neria Y, Gross R, Marshall R, Susser E (eds). 9/11: Public Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, United Kingdom.
39. Foa EB, Dancu CV, Hembree EA, Jaycox LH, Meadows EA, Street GP (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. J Consult Clin Psychol 67: 194-200.
40. Foa EB, Hearst-Ikeda D, Perry KJ (1995). Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavior program for the prevention of chronic PTSD in recent assault victims. J Consult Clin Psychol 63: 948-955.
41. Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ (eds). (2000). Effective Treatments for PTSD. Guilford Press: New York.
42. Foa EB, Meadows EA (1997). Psychosocial treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a critical review. In: Spence J, Darley JM, Foss DJ (eds). Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 48. Annual Reviews Inc.: Palo Alto, CA. pp 449-480.
43. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO (1998). Treating the Trauma of Rape. Guilford Publications: New York.
44. Foa EB, Rothbaum BO, Furr JM (2003). Augmenting exposure therapy with other CBT procedures. Psychiatr Ann 33: 47-53.
45. Foa EB, Rothbaum RO, Riggs DS, Murdock TB (1991). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: a comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol 59: 715-723.
46. Frank JB, Kosten TR, Giller EL, Dan E (1988). A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for post traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 145: 1289-1291.
47. Gal R, Jones FD (1995). A psychological model of combat stress. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, Rothberg JM, Stokes JW (eds). War Psychiatry. Office of Surgeon General, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research: Washington, DC. pp 133-148.
48. Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, Kilpatrick D, Bucuvalas M, Gold J et al (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terroist attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med 346: 982-987.
49. Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T, Brandes D, Shalev AY (1996). Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a retrospective study. J Clin Psychiatry 57: 390-394.
50. Green BL, Friedman MJ, De Jong J, Solomon SD, Keane TM, Fairbank JA et al (2003). Trauma Interventions in War and Peace: Prevention, Practice, and Policy. Kluwer: New York.
51. Hobbs M, Mayou R, Harrison B, Worlock P (1996). A randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. Br Med J 313: 1438-1439.
52. Hobfoll SE (1991). Traumatic stress: a theory based on rapid loss of resources. Anxiety Res: Int J 4: 187-197.
53. Hobfoll SE (1998). Stress, Culture, and Community: the Psychology and Philosophy of Stress. Plenum: New York, NY.
54. Hobfoll SE, Briggs S, Wells J (1994). Community stress and resources: actions and reactions. In: Hobfoll SE, deVries MW (eds). Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention. Klewer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
55. Hobfoll SE, Spielberger CD, Breznitz S, Figley C, Folkman S, Green BL et al (1991). War-related stress: addressing the stress of war and other traumatic events. Am Psychologist 46: 848-855.
56. Hytten K, Hasle A (1989). Fire fighters: a study of stress and coping. Acta Psychiatr Scand 80(Suppl 355): 50-55.
57. Ingram RE, Price JM (2001). The role of vulnerability in understanding psychopathology. In: Ingram R, Price J (eds). Vulnerability to Psychopathology: Risk Across the Lifespan. Guilford Press: New York, NY. pp 3-19.
58. Jones FD (1995). Neuropsychiatric casualties of nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, Rothberg JM, Stokes JW (eds). War Psychiatry. Office of Surgeon General, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research: Washington, DC. pp 85-111.
59. Jones FD, Fong YH (1994). Military psychiatry and terrorism. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, Rothberg JM, Stokes JW (eds). Military Psychiatry: Preparing in Peace for War. Office of Surgeon General, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research: Washington, DC. pp 263-269.
60. Karsenty E, Shemer J, Alshech I, Cojocaru B, Moscovitz M, Shapiro Y et al (1991). Medical aspects of the Iraqi missile attacks on Israel. Israel J Med Sci 27: 603-607.
61. Keane TM, Fairbank JA, Caddell JM, Zimmering RT (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behav Ther 20: 245-260.
62. Keim M, Kaufmann AF (1999). Principles for emergency response to bioterrorism. Ann Emerg Med 34: 177-182.
63. Kenardy JA, Webster RA, Lewin TJ, Carr VJ, Hazell PL, Carter GL (1996). Stress debriefing and patterns of recovery following a natural disaster. J Traumat Stress 9: 37-49.
64. Khan AS, Levitt AM, Sage MJ (2000). Biological and chemical terrorism: strategic plan for preparedness and response. Morbid Mortal Week Rep 49(RR04): 1-14.
65. Klingman A (1992). Stress reactions of Israeli youth during the Gulf. War Prof Psychol: Res Pr 23: 521-527.
66. Lahad M (1996). The Media and Terrorism - Handbook for Psycho-Intervention Teams. The Community Stress Prevention Center (Hebrew): Kiryat Shmona.
67. Lahad M, Cohen A (1998). Eighteen years of community stress prevention. In: Ayalon O, Lahad M, Cohen A (eds). Community Stress Prevention 3. Community Stress Prevention Centre: Kiryat Shmona. pp 1-9.
68. Laraque D, Boscarino JA, Battista A, Fleischman A, Casalino M, Hu Y et al (2004). Reactions and needs of tri-state area pediatricians following the events of September 11: implications for children's mental health services. Pediatrics 113: 1357-1366.
69. Levy A (1991). Air-raid in closed department: double entry. Shiot 5(Special Issue): 20-21.
70. Levy S (1991). Morale During the Gulf War. Lecture presented at the Israeli Institute for Military Studies, Zichron Ya'acov.
71. Lomranz J, Hobfoll SE, Johnson R, Eyal N, Zemach M (1994). A nation's response to attack: Israelis' depressive reactions to the Gulf War. J Traum Stress 7: 59-63.
72. Marks I, Lovell K, Noshirvani H, Livanou M, Thrasher S (1998). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by exposure and/or cognitive restructuring: a controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 317-325.
73. Marshall RD, Beebe KL, Oldham M, Zaninelli R (2001). Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment of chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 158: 1982-1988.
74. Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zhang H, Koke SC, Prakash A (2002a). Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 181: 315-320.
75. Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zhang H, Prakash A, Koke SC (2002b). Fluoxetine versus placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 63: 199-206.
76. Mayou RA, Ehlers A, Hobbs M (2000). Psychological debriefing for road traffic accidents: three-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 176: 589-593.
77. McFarlane AC (1994). Stress and disaster. In: Hobfoll SE, deVries MW (eds). Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention. Klewer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
78. McNally RJ, Bryant RA, Ehlers A (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychol Sci Public Interest 4: 45-79.
79. McQuire WJ (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: some contemporary approaches. In: Berkowitz L (ed). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Academic Press: New York.
80. Milgram N, Sarason BR, Schnpflug U, Jackson A, Schwarzer C (1994). Catalyzing community support. In: Hobfoll SE, deVries MW (eds). Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention. Klewer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
81. Mitchell JT (1983). When disaster strikes...The Critical Incident Stress Debriefing process. J Emerg Med Serv 8: 36-39.
82. Mitchell JT, Everly Jr GS (2001). Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: an Operations Manual for CISD, Defusing and Other Group Crisis Intervention Services, 3rd edn. Chevron Publishing Corporation: Ellicott City, MD.
83. North CS, Nixon SJ, Shariat S, Mallonee S, McMillen JC, Spitznagel EL et al (1999). Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA 282: 755-762.
84. Ohbu S, Yamashina A, Takasu N, Yamaguchi T, Murai T, Nakano K et al (1997). Sarin poisoning on Tokyo subway. Southern Med J 90: 587-593.
85. Paunovic N, Ost LG (2001). Cognitive-behavior therapy vs exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD in refugees. Behav Res Ther 39: 1183-1197.
86. Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM, Healy AR, Cheema F, Lasko NB et al (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol Psychiatry 51: 183-188.
87. Raphael B, Wilson JP (2000). Psychological Debriefing: Theory, Practice and Evidence. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.
88. Reist C, Kauffman CD, Haier RJ, Sangdahl C, DeMet EM, Chicz-DeMet A et al (1989). A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 146: 513-516.
89. Resick PA, Nishith P, Weaver TL, Astin MC, Feurer CA (2002). A comparison of cognitive processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. J Consult Clin Psychol 70: 867-879.
90. Rivers WHR (1920). Repression and suppression. In: Miller HC (ed). Functional Nerve Disease: An Epitome of War Experience for the Practitioner. Henry Frowde [and] Hodder & Stoughton: London. pp 88-98.
91. Rose S, Bisson J, Wessely S (2001). Psychological Debriefing for Preventing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Library, issue 3. Update Software: Vista, CA.
92. Rose S, Brewin CR, Andrews B, Kirk M (1999). A randomized controlled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychol Med 29: 793-799.
93. Rosenfeld LB, Caye J, Ayalon O, Lahad M (2004). When Their World Comes Apart: Helping Families and Children Manage the Effects of Disasters. NASW Press: Washington, DC.
94. Schelling G, Briegel J, Roozendaal B, Stoll C, Rothenhausler HB, Kapfhammer HP (2001). The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biol Psychiatry 50: 978-985.
95. Shapiro F (2001). Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures, 2nd edn. The Guilford Press: New York.
96. Shestatzky M, Greenberg D, Lerer B (1988). A controlled trail of phenelzine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 24: 149-155.
97. Silver RC, Holman EA, McIntosh DN, Poulin M, Gil-Rivas V (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. JAMA 288: 1235-1244.
98. Slone M (2000). Responses to media coverage of terrorism. J Confl Resol 44: 508-522.
99. Solomon Z (1995). Coping with War-Induced Stress: The Gulf War and the Israeli Response. Plenum Press: New York.
100. Solomon Z, Laor N, Weiler D, Muller UF, Hadar O, Waysman M et al (1993). The psychological impact of the Gulf War: a study of acute stress in Israeli evacuees. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 320-321.
101. Talmon Y, Guy N, Mure K, Rafes A, Naor S (1992). The Sadaam Syndrome: acute psychotic reactions during the Gulf War. Ha'refua 123: 237-240.
102. Tarrier N, Pilgrim H, Sommerfield C, Faragher B, Reynolds M, Graham E et al (1999). A randomized trial of cognitive therapy and imaginal exposure in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 67: 13-18.
103. Taylor S, Thordarson DS, Maxfield L, Fedoroff IC, Lovell K, Ogrodniczuk J (2003). Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. J Consult Clin Psychol 71: 330-338.
104. Tucker P, Zaninelli R, Yehuda R, Ruggiero L, Dillingham K, Pitts CD (2001). Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 860-868.
105. van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M, Shera D, Berkowitz R, Fisler RE et al (1994). Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 55: 517-522.
106. van Emmerik AAP, Kamphuis JH, Hulsbosch AM, Emmelkamp PMG (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: a meta-analysis. Lancet 360: 766-771.
107. Veronen LJ, Kilpatrick DG (1983). Stress management for rape victims. In: Meichenbaum D, Jaremko ME (eds). Stress Reduction and Prevention. Plenum Press: New York. pp 341-374.
108. Veronen LJ, Kilpatrick DG, Resick PA (1978). Stress inoculation training for victims of rape. Paper presented at the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago.
109. Vlahov D, Galea S, Resnick R, Ahern J, Boscarino JA, Bucuvalas M et al (2002). Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan residents after the September 11th terrorists attacks. Am J Epidemiol 155: 988-996.
110. Wee DF, Mills DM, Koehler G (1999). The effects of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) on emergency medical services personnel following the Los Angeles civil disturbance. Int J Emerg Mental Health 1: 33-37.
111. Weisaeth L (1994). Preventive psychosocial intervention after disaster. In: Hobfoll SE, deVries MW (eds). Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention. Klewer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
112. Zimbardo PG (2003). The Political Psychology of Terrorist Alarms. Psychologists for Social Responsbility (http://www.psysr.org/zimbardo2003.htm).
113. Zimbardo PG, Ebbesen EB, Maslach C (1977). Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior. Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA.
114. Zoellner LA, Feeny NC, Cochran B, Pruitt L (2003). Treatment choice for PTSD. Behav Res Ther 41(8): 879-886.