Psychological treatments for PTSD: An overview

9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 457-474

  Foa, Edna B ^a   Cahill, Shawn P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84927024873     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511544132.028     Document Type: Chapter

References (82)

1. American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.).Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.
2. Bandura, A., Blanchard, E.B. and Ritter, B. (1969). The relative efficacy of desensitization and modeling approaches for inducing behavioral, affective, and cognitive changes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 173-199.
3. Beck, A.T., Emery, G. and Greenberg, R.L. (1985). Anxiety Disorders and Phobias: A Cognitive Perspective. New York: Basic Books.
4. Becker, C.B., Zayfert, C. and Anderson, E. (2004). A survey of psychologists' attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 277-292.
5. Bisson, J.I., Jenkins, P.L., Alexander, J. and Bannister, C. (1997). Randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of acute burn trauma. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 78-81.
6. Bisson, J.I., McFarlane, A.C. and Rose, S. (2000). Psychological debriefing. In Effective Treatment for PTSD, ed. E.B. Foa, T.M. Keane and M.J. Friedman, New York, NY: Guilford Press, pp. 39-59.
7. Black, J.L. and Keane, T.M. (1982). Implosive therapy in the treatment of combat related fears in a World War II veteran. Journal of Behavior therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 13, 163-165.
8. Blake, D.D., Weathers, F.W., Nagy, L.N., Kaloupek, D.G., Klauminser, G., Charney, D.S. and Keane, T.M. (1990). A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS-1. Behavior Therapist, 18, 187-188.
9. Blanchard, E.B., Hickling, E.J., Devineni, T., Veazey, C.H., Galovski, T.E., Mundy, E., Malta, L.S.& Buckley, T.C. (2003). A controlled evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behavior Research and Therapy, 41, 79-96.
10. Brom, D., Kleber, R.J. and Defares, P.B. (1989). Brief psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 607-612.
11. Cahill, S.P., Hembree, E.A. and Foa, E.B. (this volume), Dissemination of prolonged exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: successes and challenges. In 9/11: Mental Health in The Wake of A Terrorist Attacks. ed. Y. Neria, R. Gross and R. Marshall. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 475-495.
12. Cahill, S.P., Carrigan, M.H. and Frueh, B.C. (1999). Does EMDR work? And if so, why? A critical review of controlled outcome and dismantling research. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 5-33.
13. Cloitre, M., Koenen, K.C., Cohen, L.R. and Han, H. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1067-1074.
14. Conlon, L., Fahy, T.J. and Conroy, R. (1999). PTSD in ambulant RTA victims: A randomized controlled trial of debriefing. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46, 37-44.
15. Cooper, N.A. and Clum, G.A. (1989). Imaginal flooding as a supplementary treatment for PTSD in combat veterans: A controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 381-391.
16. Dollard, J. and Miller, N.E. (1950). Personality and Psychotherapy; An Analysis in Terms of Learning, Thinking, and Culture. New York:McGraw-Hill.
17. Ehlers A., Clark DM., Hackmann A., et al. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry; 60, 1024-1032.
18. Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (1974). Self-observation versus flooding in the treatment of agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 12, 229-237.
19. Emmelkamp, P.M.G. and Wessels, H. (1975). Flooding in imagination vs. flooding in vivo: A comparison with agoraphobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 13, 7-16.
20. Everly, G.S., Flannery, R.B., Eyler, V. and Mitchell, J.T. (2001). Sufficiency analysis of an integrated multicomponent approach to crisis intervention: Critical incident stress management. Advances in Mind Body Medicine, 17, 174-183.
21. Fairbank, J.A. and Keane, T.M. (1982). Flooding for combat-related stress disorders: Assessment of anxiety reduction across traumatic memories. Behavior Therapy, 13, 499-510.
22. Fairbank, J.A., Gross, R.T. and Keane, T.M. (1983). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluating outcome with a behavioral code. Behavioral Modification, 7, 557-568.
23. Foa, E.B., (2003, May). Treatment for PTSD: what do we know and what next? Invited presentation at the 8th European Conference on Traumatic Stress, Berlin, Germany.
24. Foa, E.B. and Goldstein, A. (1978). Continuous exposure and complete response prevention in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive neurosis. Behavior Therapy, 9, 821-829.
25. Foa, E.B. and Kozak, M.J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20-35.
26. Foa, E.B. and Meadows, E.A. (1997). Psychosocial treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a critical review. In Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 48, Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews Inc. pp. 449-480.
27. Foa, E.B. and Rothbaum, B.O. (1998). Treating the Trauma of Rape. New York: Guilford.
28. Foa, E.B., Rothbaum, B. and Kozak, M.J. (1989). Behavioral treatments of anxiety and depression. In Anxiety and Depression: Distinctive and Overlapping Features, ed. P. Kendall and D.Watson, New York: Academic Press. pp. 413-454.
29. Foa, E.B., Steketee, G. and Rothbaum, B. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155-176.
30. Foa, E.B., Keane, T.M. and Friedman, M.J. (2000). Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guilford.
31. Foa, E.B., Rothbaum, B.O. and Furr, J.M. (2003). Augmenting exposure therapy with other BT procedures. Psychiatric Annals, 33, 47-53.
32. Foa, E.B., Rothbaum, B.O., Riggs, D.S. and Murdock, T. (1991). Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 715-723.
33. Foa, E.B., Franklin, M.E., Perry, K.J. and Herbert, J.D. (1996). Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 433-439.
34. Foa, E.B., Dancu, C.V., Hembree, E.A., Jaycox, L.H., Meadows, E.A. and Street, G. (1999). The efficacy of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training and their combination in ameliorating PTSD for female victims of assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 194-200.
35. Freud, S. (1973). The New Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis. New York: Penguin.
36. Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J. and Vlahov, D. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982-987.
37. Gillespie, K., Duffy, M., Hackmann, A. and Clark, D. M. (2002). Community based cognitive therapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder following the Omagh bomb. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 345-357.
38. Grinker, R.R. and Spiegel, J.P. (1944). Brief psychotherapy in war neuroses. Psychosomatic Medicine, 6, 123-131.
39. Hobbs, M., Mayou, R., Harrison, B. and Worlock, P. (1996). A randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. British Medical Journal, 313, 1438-1439.
40. Horowitz, M.J., Wilner, N. and Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of event scale: a measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209-218. Hurst, A.F. (1919).Hysteria in the light of the experience of war. Journal of Educational Research, 20, 771-774.
41. Keane, T.M. and Kaloupek, D.G. (1982). Imaginal flooding in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 138-140.
42. Keane, T.M., Zimering, R.T. and Caddell, J.M. (1985). A behavioral formulation of PTSD in Vietnam veterans. Behavior Therapist, 8, 9-12.
43. Keane, T.M., Fairbank, J.A., Caddell, J.M. and Zimering, R.T. (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 20, 245-260.
44. Kipper, D.A. (1977). Behavior therapy for fears brought on by war experiences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 216-221.
45. Kraft, T. and Al-Issa, I. (1965). The application of learning theory to the treatment of traffic phobia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 277-279.
46. Krakow, B., Hollifield, M., Johnston, L., Koss, M., Schrader, R., Warner, T. D., Tandberg, D., Lauriello, J., McBride, L., Cutchen, L., Cheng, D., Emmons, S., Germain, A., Melendrez, D., Sandoval, D. and Prince, H. (2001). Imagery rehearsal therapy for chronic nightmares in sexual assault survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal American Medical Association, 286, 537-545.
47. Kushner, M. (1965). Desensitization of a posttraumatic phobia. In Case Studies in Behavior Modification, ed. L.P.Ullmann and L.Krasner, New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp. 193-196.
48. Lange, A., van de Ven, J., Schrieken, B. and Emmelkamp, P.M. (2001). Treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet: A controlled trial. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 32, 73-90.
49. Lohr, J.M., Tolin, D.F. and Lilienfeld, S.O. (1998). Efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: implications for behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 29, 123-156.
50. Marks, I.M., Hodgson, R. and Rachman, S. (1975). Treatment of chronic obsessive-compulsive neurosis in vivo exposure, a 2 year follow-up and issues in treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 349-364.
51. Marks, I., Lovell, K., Noshirvani, H., Livanou, M. and Thrasher, S. (1998). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by exposure and/or cognitive restructuring. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 317-325.
52. Mathews, A.M., Johnston, D.W., Lancashire, M., Munby, M., Shaw, P.M. and Gelder, M.G. (1976). Imaginal flooding and exposure to real phobic situations: treatment outcome with agoraphobic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 362-371.
53. Mayou, R.A., Ehlers, A. and Hobbs, M. (2000). Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims: three year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 589-593.
54. McNally, R.J., Bryant, R.A. and Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45-79.
55. Meichenbaum, D. (1974).Cognitive Behavior Modification. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
56. Meichenbaum, D. and Cameron, R. (1972). Stress inoculation: a skills training approach to anxiety management (unpublished manuscript), University of Waterloo.
57. Meyer, V. (1966). Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 4, 273-280.
58. Meyer, V., Levy, R. and Schnurer, A. (1974). A behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders. In Obsessional States, ed. H.R. Beech, London:Methuen. pp. 223-258.
59. Olasov-Rothbaum, B. and Foa, E.B. (1983). Exposure treatment of PTSD concomitant with conversion mutism: A case study. Behavior Therapy, 22, 449-456.
60. Paivio, S.C. and Nieuwenhuis, J.A. (2001). Efficacy of emotion focused therapy for adult survivors of child abuse: A preliminary study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 115-133.
61. Paul, G.L. (1966). Insight vs.Desensitization in Psychotherapy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
62. Paunovic, N. and Ost, L.G. (2001). Cognitive-behavior therapy vs. exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD in refugees. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1183-1197.
63. Pitman, R.K., Orr, S.P., Altman, B., Longpre, R.E., Poire, R.E., Macklin, M.L., Michaels, M.J. and Steketee, G.S. (1996). Emotional processing and outcome of imaginal flooding therapy in Vietnam veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37, 409-418.
64. Rachman, S.J. (1978). Fear and Courage. W.H. Freeman. San Francisco, California.
65. Ranchman, S. (1980). Emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18, 51-60.
66. Resick, P.A., Jordan, C.G., Girelli, S.A., Hutter, C.K. and Marhoefer-Dvorak, S. (1988). A comparative outcome study of group behavioral therapy for sexual assault victims. Behavior Therapy, 19, 385-401.
67. Resick, P.A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T.L., Astin, M.C. and Feurer, C.A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 867-879.
68. Rivers, W.H.R. (1920). Repression and suppression. In Functional Nerve Disease: An Epitome of War Experience for the Practitioner, ed. H.C. Miller, London: Henry Frowde (and) Hodder and Stoughton, pp. 88-98.
69. Rose, S., Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. and Kirk, M. (1999). A randomized controlled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychological Medicine, 29, 793-799.
70. Rothbaum, B.O., Foa, E.B., Riggs, D.S., Murdock, T. and Walsh, W. (1992). A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455-475.
71. Saul, L.J., Rome, H. and Leuser, E. (1946). Desensitization of combat fatigue patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 102, 476-478.
72. Schlenger, W.E., Caddell, J.M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B.K., Rourke, K.M., Wilson, D., Thalji, L., Dennis, J.M., Fairbank, J.A. and Kulka, R.A. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the National Study of Americans' Reactions to September 11. Journal American Medical Association, 288, 581-588.
73. Schindler, F.E. (1980). Treatment by systematic desensitization of a recurring nightmare of a real life trauma. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 11, 53-54.
74. Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 199-223.
75. Shapiro, F. (1991). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing procedure: From EMD to EMDR: A new treatment model for anxiety and related traumata. The Behavior Therapist, 14, 133-135.
76. Shapiro, F. (2001) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures, (2nd edn.). New York: The Guilford Press.
77. Suinn, R.M. and Richardson, F. (1971). Anxiety management training: A nonspecific behavior therapy program for anxiety control. Behavior Therapy, 2, 498-510.
78. Tarrier, N., Pilgrim, H., Sommertield, C., et al. (1999). A randomized trial of cognitive therapy and imaginal exposure in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 13-18.
79. Veronen, L.J. and Kilpatrick, D.G. (1983). Stress management for rape victims. In Stress Reduction and Prevention, ed. D.Meichenbaum and M.E. Jaremko, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 341-374.
80. Veronen, L.J., Kilpatrick, D.G. and Resick, P.A. (1978). Stress inoculation training for victims of rape. Paper presented at the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago, November.
81. Wolff, R. (1977). Systematic desensitization and negative practice to alter the aftereffects of a rape attempt. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 8, 423-425.
82. Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.