Not all self-affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefits of affirming the intrinsic (Vs. Extrinsic) self

Social Cognition

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 75-99

  Schimel, Jeff ^a   Arndt, Jamie ^b   Banko, Katherine M ^a   Cook, Alison ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2442624848     PISSN: 0278016X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984     Document Type: Article

References (47)

1. Arndt, J., & Greenberg, J. (1999). The effects of self-esteem boost and mortality salience on responses to boost relevant and irrelevant world view threats. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1331-1341.
2. Arndt, J., & Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Schimel, J. (1999). Creativity and terror management: Evidence that creative activity increases guilt and social projection following mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 19-32.
3. Arndt, J., & Schimel, J. (2003). Will the real self-esteem please stand up?: Toward an optimal understanding of the nature, functions, and sources of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 27-31.
4. Arndt, J., Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2002). The intrinsic self and defensiveness: Evidence that activating the intrinsic self reduces self-handicapping and conformity. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 671-683.
5. Baldwin, M. W., & Sinclair, L. (1996). Self-esteem and "if...then" contingencies of interpersonal acceptance. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 71, 1130-1141.
6. Bassili, J. N., & Smith, M. C. (1986). On the spontaneity of trait attribution: Converging evidence for the role of cognitive strategy. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 50, 239-245.
7. Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5-33.
8. Beck, B. L., Koons, S. R., & Milgrim, D. L. (2000). Correlates and consequences of behavioral procrastination: The effects of academic procrastination, self-consciousness, self-esteem, and self-handicapping. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 3-13.
9. Becker, E. (1971). The birth and death of meaning. New York: Free Press.
10. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
11. Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 307-324.
12. Brown, N. O. (1959). Life against death: The psychoanalytic meaning of history. New York: Viking.
13. Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593-623.
14. Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psycholopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354.
15. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31-49). New York: Plenum.
16. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behaviour. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.
17. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 72, 218-232.
18. Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997) Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31-44.
19. Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of Stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 60, 509-517.
20. Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Rosenblatt, A., Burling, J., Lyon, D., Pinel, E., & Simon, L. (1992). Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-bufering function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 913-922.
21. Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
22. Kernis, M. L. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 1-27.
23. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A. J., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem then whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
24. Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B. D., & Barclay, L. H. (1992). Stability of self-esteem: Assessment, correlates, and excuse making. Journal of Personality, 60, 521-644.
25. Kernis, M. L., & Waschull, S. B. (1995). The interactive roles of stability and level of self-esteem: Research and theory. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 27, pp. 93-141). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26. Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, Ap., van Knippenberg, Ad. (2001). What's in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 669-685.
27. Krueger, J., & Clement, R. W. (1994). The truly false consensus effect: An ineradicable and egocentric bias in social perception. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 67, 596-610.
28. Pelham, B. W., & Hetts, J. L. (1999). Implicit and explicit personal and social identity: Toward a more complete understanding of the social self. In T. R. Tyler, R. M. Kramer, & J. P. Oliver (Eds.), The psychology of the social self. Applied social research, (pp. 115-143). New York: Earlbaum.
29. Rank, O. (1931). Psychology and the soul. New York: Perpetua.
30. Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2001). Being accepted for who we are: Evidence that social validation of the intrinsic self reduces general defensiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 446-462.
31. Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Martens, A. (2003). Evidence that projection of a feared trait can serve a defensive function. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 969-979.
32. Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
33. Sherman, D. A. K., Nelson, L. D., & Steele, C. M. (2000). Do messages about health risks threaten the self? Increasing the acceptance of threatening health messages via self-affirmation. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1046-1058.
34. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Psyzczynski, T. (1991). A terror management theory of cosial behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 91-159). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
35. Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
36. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 21 (pp. 261-302).
37. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
38. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
39. Steele, C. M., & Liu, T. J. (1983). Dissonance processes as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 5-19.
40. Stone, J., Wiegand, A. W., Cooper, J., Aronson, E. (1997). When exemplification fails: Hypocrisy and the motive for self-integrity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 54-65.
41. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
42. Tesser, A. (2001). On the plasticity of self-defense. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 66-69.
43. Tesser, A., & Cornell, D. P. (1991). On the confluence of self processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 501-526.
44. Tesser, A., Crepaz N., Collins, J., Cornell, D., & Beach, S. (2000). Confluence of self-esteem regulation mechansisms: On integrating the self-zoo. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1476-1489.
45. Tesser, A., Martin, L. L., & Cornell, D. P. (1996). On the substitutability of self-protective mechanisms. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking motivation and cognition to behavior (pp. 48-68). New York: Guilford.
46. Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological actecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 73, 63-72.
47. Zuckerman, M., Kieffer, S. C., Knee, R. C. (1998). Consequences of self-handicapping: Effects on coping, academic performance, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1619-1628.