Management of infections by the human polyomavirus JC: Past, present and future

Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy

Volumn 3, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 629-640

  Hou, Jean ^a   Major, Eugene ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS AND STROKE   (United States)

Author keywords

Demyelinating disease; JCV; Opportunistic infection; Polyomavirus; Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; BETA INTERFERON; CAMPTOTHECIN; CIDOFOVIR; CYTARABINE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INTERLEUKIN 2; NUCLEOTIDE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; TOPOTECAN; VIRUS ANTIGEN; VIRUS DNA; VIRUS PROTEIN; ZIDOVUDINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIGEN DETECTION; CELL TRANSPLANTATION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TUMOR; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEMYELINATING DISEASE; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; FATALITY; GRAFT REJECTION; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; JC VIRUS; MEDICAL DOCUMENTATION; MICROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; OLIGODENDROGLIA; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; PATHOGENESIS; PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; JC VIRUS; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY, PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; POLYOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS; TUMOR VIRUS INFECTIONS;

EID: 24044486521     PISSN: 14787210     EISSN: 17448336     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14787210.3.4.629     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Padgett BL, Walker DL, ZuRhein GM, Eckroade RJ, Dessel BH. Cultivation of papova-like virus from human brain with progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. Lancet 1(7712), 1257-1260 (1971).
2. Gardner SD, Field AM, Coleman DV. Hulme B. New human papovavirus (B.K.) isolated from urine after renal transplantation. Lancet 1(7712), 1253-1257 (1971).
3. Regenmortel MHV, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL et al. Virus Taxonomy: The Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego, USA (2000).
4. Frisque RJ, Bream GL, Cannella MT. Human polyomavirus JC virus genome. J. Virol. 51(2), 458-469 (1984).
5. Okada Y, Endo S, Takahashi H et al. Distribution and function of JCV agnoprotein. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 302-306 (2001).
6. Amemiya K, Traub R, Durham L, Major EO. Interaction of a nuclear factor-1-like protein with the regulatory region of the human polyomavirus JC virus. J. Biol. Chem. 264(12), 7025-7032 (1989).
7. Chang CF, Gallia GL, Muralidharan V et al. Evidence that replication of human neurotropic JC virus DNA in glial cells is regulated by the sequence-specific single-stranded DNA-binding protein Pur α. J. Virol. 70(6), 4150-4156 (1996).
8. Ault GS. Activity of JC virus archetype and PML-type regulatory regions in glial cells. J. Gen. Virol. 78(Pt. 1), 163-169 (1997).
9. Jensen PN, Major EO. A classification scheme for human polyomavirus JCV variants based on the nucleotide sequence of the noncoding regulatory region. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 280-287 (2001).
10. Richardson EP Jr. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 265, 815-823 (1961).
11. Astrom KE, Mancall EL, Richardson EP. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Brain 81, 93-127 (1958).
12. Major EO, Amemiya K, Tornatore CS, Houff SA, Berger JR. Pathogenesis and molecular biology of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, the JC virus-induced demyelinating disease of the human brain. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 5(1), 49-73 (1992).
13. Berger JR. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Curr. Treat. Options Neurol. 2(4), 361-368 (2000).
14. Astrom KE, Stoner GL. Early pathological changes in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a report of two asymptomatic cases occurring prior to the AIDS epidemic. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl). 88(1), 93-105 (1994).
15. Dang-Tan T, Mahmud SM, Puntoni R, Franco EL. Polio vaccines, simian virus 40, and human cancer: the epidemiologic evidence for a causal association. Oncogene 23(38), 6535-6540 (2004).
16. Reiss K, Khalili K. Viruses and cancer: lessons from the human polyomavirus, JCV. Oncogene 22(42), 6517-6523 (2003).
17. Lopez-Rios F, Illei PB, Rusch V, Ladanyi M. Evidence against a role for SV40 infection in human mesotheliomas and high risk of false-positive PCR results owing to presence of SV40 sequences in common laboratory plasmids. Lancet 364(9440), 1157-1166 (2004).
18. Mayall F, Barratt K, Shanks J. The detection of simian virus 40 in mesotheliomas from New Zealand and England using real time FRET probe PCR protocols. J. Clin. Pathol. 56(10), 728-730 (2003).
19. Rollison DE, Utaipat U, Ryschkewitsch C et al. Investigation of human brain tumors for the presence of polyomavirus genome sequences by two independent laboratories. Int. J. Cancer 113(5), 769-774 (2005).
20. Shitrit D, Lev N, Bar-Gil-Shitrit A, Kramer MR. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in transplant recipients. Tanspl. Int. 17(11), 658-665 (2004).
21. Osorio S, de la Camara R, Golbano N et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after stem cell transplantation, unsuccessfully treated with cidofovir. Bone Marrow Transplant. 30(12), 963-966 (2002).
22. Kazory AM, Ducloux D. Polyomaviruses and transplant patients: new concepts. Transpl. Infect. Dis. 6(3), 136-137 (2004).
23. Herman J, Van Ranst M, Snoeck R et al. Polyomavirus infection in pediatric renal transplant recipients: evaluation using a quantitative real-time PCR technique. Pediatr. Transplant. 8(5), 485-492 (2004).
24. Randhawa P, Baksh F, Aoki N, Tschirhart D, Finkelstein S. JC virus infection in allograft kidneys: analysis by polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. Transplantation 71(9), 1300-1303 (2001).
25. Baksh FK, Finkelstein SD, Swalsky PA et al. Molecular genotyping of BK and JC viruses in human polyomavirus-associated interstitial nephritis after renal transplantation. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 38(2), 354-365 (2001).
26. Wen MC, Wang CL, Wang M et al. Association of JC virus with tubulointerstitial nephritis in a renal allograft recipient. J. Med. Virol. 72(4), 675-678 (2004).
27. Brown P. Tsai T, Gajdusek DC. Seroepidemiology of human papovaviruses. Discovery of virgin populations and some unusual patterns of antibody prevalence among remote peoples of the world. Am. J. Epidemiol. 102(4), 331-340 (1975).
28. Monaco MC, Atwood WJ, Gravell M, Tornatore CS, Major EO. JC virus infection of hematopoietic progenitor cells, primary B lymphocytes, and tonsillar stromal cells: implications for viral latency. J. Virol. 70(10), 7004-7012 (1996).
29. Houff SA, Major EO, Katz DA et al. Involvement of JC virus-infected mononuclear cells from the bone marrow and spleen in the pathogenesis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 318(5), 301-305 (1988).
30. Jensen PN, Major EO. Viral variant nucleotide sequences help expose leukocytic positioning in the JC virus pathway to the CNS. J. Leukoc. Biol. 65(4), 428-438 (1999).
31. Sabath BF, Major EO. Traffic of JC virus from sites of initial infection to the brain: the path to progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Infect. Dis. 186(Suppl. 2), S180-S186 (2002).
32. Seth P, Diaz F, Major EO. Advances in the biology of JC virus and induction of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Neurovirol. 9(2), 236-246 (2003).
33. Aksamit AJ Jr. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a review of the pathology and pathogenesis. Microsc. Res. Tech. 32(4), 302-311 (1995).
34. Messam CA, Hou J, Gronostajski RM, Major EO. Lineage pathway of human brain progenitor cells identified by JC virus susceptibility. Ann. Neurol. 53(5), 636-646 (2003).
35. Laghi L, Randolph AE, Chauhan DP et al. JC virus DNA is present in the mucosa of the human colon and in colorectal cancers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96(13), 7484-7489 (1999).
36. Kitamura T, Yogo Y, Kunitake T et al. Effect of immunosuppression on the urinary excretion of BK and JC polyomaviruses in renal allograft recipients. Int. J. Urol. 1(1), 28-32 (1994).
37. Behzad-Behbahani A, Mapper PE, Vallely PJ, Cleator GM, Khoo SH. Detection of BK virus and JC virus DNA in urine samples from immunocompromised (HIV-infected) and immunocompetent (HIV-non-infected) patients using polymerase chain reaction and microplate hybridisation. J. Clin. Virol. 29(4), 224-229 (2004).
38. Bofill-Mas S, Pina S, Girones R. Documenting the epidemiologic patterns of polyomaviruses in human populations by studying their presence in urban sewage. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66(1), 238-245 (2000).
39. Houff SA, Katz D, Kufta CV, Major EO. A rapid method for in situ hybridization for viral DNA in brain biopsies from patients with AIDS. AIDS 3(12), 843-845 (1989).
40. Knoll A, Stoehr R, Jilg W, Hartmann A. Low frequency of human polyomavirus BKV and JCV DNA in urothelial carcinomas of the renal pelvis and renal cell carcinomas. Oncol. Rep. 10(2), 487-491 (2003).
41. Taoufik Y, Gasnault J, Karaterki A et al. Prognostic value of JC virus load in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Infect. Dis. 178(6), 1816-1820 (1998).
42. Ryschkewitsch C, Jensen P, Hou J et al. Comparison of PCR-southern hybridization and quantitative real-time PCR for the detection of JC and BK viral nucleotide sequences in urine and cerebrospinal fluid. J. Virol. Methods 121(2), 217-221 (2004).
43. Yiannoutsos CT, Major EO, Curfman B et al. Relation of JC virus DNA in the cerebrospinal fluid to survival in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients with biopsy-proven progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann. Neurol. 45(6), 816-821 (1999).
44. Koralnik IJ, Boden D, Mai VX, Lord CI, Letvin NL. JC virus DNA load in patients with and without progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 52(2), 253-260 (1999).
45. Cinque P, Koralnik IJ, Clifford DB. The evolving face of human immunodeficiency virus-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-defining a consensus terminology. J. Neurovirol. 9(Suppl. 1), 88-92 (2003).
46. Aoki N, Kitamura T, Tominaga T et al. Immunohistochemical detection of JC virus in nontumorous renal tissue of a patient with renal cancer but without progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37(4), 1165-1167 (1999).
47. Johnson SA. Nucleoside analogues in the treatment of haematological malignancies. Exp. Opin. Pharmacother. 2(6), 929-943 (2001).
48. O'Riordan T, Daly PA, Hutchinson M, Shattock AG, Gardner SD. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-remission with cytarabine. J. Infect. 20(1), 51-54 (1990).
49. Bauer WR, Turel AP Jr, Johnson KP. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and cytarabine. Remission with treatment. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 226(2), 174-176 (1973).
50. Marriott PJ, O'Brien MD, Mackenzie IC, Janota I. Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy: remission with cytarabine. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 38(3), 205-209 (1975).
51. Garrels K, Kucharczyk W, Wortzman G, Shandling M. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: clinical and MR response to treatment. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 17(3), 597-600 (1996).
52. Guarino M, D'Alessandro R, Rinaldi R et al. Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in AIDS: treatment with cytosine arabinoside. AIDS 9(7), 819-820 (1995).
53. Portegies P, Algra PR, Hollak CE et al. Response to cytarabine in progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in AIDS. Lancet 337(8742), 680-681 (1991).
54. Moreno S, Miralles P, Diaz MD et al. Cytarabine therapy for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23(5), 1066-1068 (1996).
55. Hall CD, Dafni U, Simpson D et al. Failure of cytarabine in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 243 Team. N. Engl. J. Med 338(19), 1345-1351 (1998).
56. De Luca A, Giancola ML, Cingolani A et al. Clinical and virological monitoring during treatment with intrathecal cytarabine in patients with AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28(3), 624-628 (1999).
57. Groothuis DR, Levy RM. The entry of antiviral and antiretroviral drugs into the central nervous system. J. Neurovirol. 3(6), 387-400 (1997).
58. Levy RM, Ward S, Schalgeter K, Groothuis D. Alternative delivery systems for antiviral nucleosides and antisense oligonucleotides to the brain. J. Neurovirol. 3(Suppl. 1), S74-S75 (1997).
59. Groothuis DR, Benalcazar H, Allen CV et al. Comparison of cytosine arabinoside delivery to rat brain by intravenous, intrathecal, intraventricular and intraparenchymal routes of administration. Brain Res. 856(1-2), 281-290 (2000).
60. Levy RM, Major E, Ali MJ, Cohen B, Groothius D. Convection-enhanced intraparenchymal delivery (CEID) of cytosine arabinoside (AraC) for the treatment of HIV-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 382-385 (2001).
61. Aksamit A. Treatment of non-AIDS progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with cytosine arabinoside. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 386-390 (2001).
62. Hou J, Major EO. The efficacy of nucleoside analogs against JC virus multiplication in a persistently infected human fetal brain cell line. J. Neurovirol. 4(4), 451-456 (1998).
63. Andrei G, Snoeck R, Piette J, Delvenne P, De Clercq E. Antiproliferative effects of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates on human papillomavirus (HPV)-harboring cell lines compared with HPV-negative cell lines. Oncol Res. 10(10), 523-531 (1998).
64. De Clercq E. Therapeutic potential of phosphonylmethoxyalkylpurines and -pyrimidines as antiviral agents. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 16(7), 319-326 (1990).
65. Rahhal FM. Treatment advances for CMV retinitis. AIDS Read. 9(1)28, 31-34 (1999).
66. Andrei G, Snoeck R, Vandeputte M, De Clercq E. Activities of various compounds against murine and primate polyomaviruses. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41(3), 587-593 (1997).
67. Sadler M, Chinn R, Healy J et al. New treatments for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 12(5), 533-535 (1998).
68. Blick G, Whiteside M, Griegor P et al. Successful resolution of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after combination therapy with cidofovir and cytosine arabinoside. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26(1), 191-192 (1998).
69. Portilla J, Boix V, Roman F, Reus S, Merino E. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy treated with cidofovir in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy. J. Infect. 41(2), 182-184 (2000).
70. Tubridy N, Wells C, Lewis D, Schon F. Unsuccessful treatment with cidofovir and cytarabine in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy associated with dermatomyositis. J. R. Soc. Med. 93(7), 374-375 (2000).
71. Houston S, Roberts N, Mashinter L. Failure of cidofovir therapy in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy unrelated to human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32(1), 150-152 (2001).
72. Herrlinger U, Schwarzler F, Beck R et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: cidofovir therapy in three patients with underlying hematological disease. J. Neurol. 250(5), 612-614 (2003).
73. De Luca A, Giancola ML, Ammassari A et al. Cidofovir added to HAART improves virological and clinical outcome in AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. AIDS 14(14), F117-F121 (2000).
74. De Luca A, Giancola ML, Ammassari A et al. Potent anti-retroviral therapy with or without cidofovir for AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: extended follow-up of an observational study. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 364-368 (2001).
75. Gasnault J, Kousignian P, Kahraman M et al. Cidofovir in AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a monocenter observational study with clinical and JC virus load monitoring. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 375-381 (2001).
76. Marra CM, Rajicic N, Barker DE et al. A pilot study of cidofovir for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS. Aids 16(13), 1791-1797 (2002).
77. Conway B, Halliday WC, Brunham RC. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: apparent response to 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine. Rev. Infect. Dis. 12(3), 479-482 (1990).
78. Singer EJ, Stoner GL, Singer P et al. AIDS presenting as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with clinical response to zidovudine. Acta Neurol. Scand. 90(6), 443-447 (1994).
79. Power C, Nath A, Aoki FY, Bigio MD. Remission of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy following splenectomy and antiretroviral therapy in a patient with HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 336(9), 661-662 (1997).
80. Elliot B, Aromin I, Gold R, Flanigan T, Mileno M. 2.5 year remission of AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with combined antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 349(9055), 850 (1997).
81. Domingo P, Guardiola JM, Iranzo A, Margall N. Remission of progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy after antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 349(9064), 1554-1555 (1997).
82. Inui K, Miyagawa H, Sashihara J et al. Remission of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy following highly active antiretroviral therapy in a patient with HIV infection. Brain Dev. 21(6), 416-419 (1999).
83. Tassie JM, Gasnault J, Bentata M et al. Survival improvement of AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the era of protease inhibitors. Clinical Epidemiology Group. French Hospital Database on HIV. AIDS 13(14), 1881-1887 (1999).
84. De Luca A, Giancola ML, Ammassari A et al. The effect of potent antiretroviral therapy and JC virus load in cerebrospinal fluid on clinical outcome of patients with AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Infect. Dis. 182(4), 1077-1083 (2000).
85. Giudici B, Vaz B, Bossolasco S et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: effects on cerebrospinal fluid markers of JC virus replication and immune response. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(1), 95-99 (2000).
86. Miralles P, Berenguer J, Garcia de Viedma D et al. Treatment of AIDS-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 12(18), 2467-2472 (1998).
87. Gasnault J, Taoufik Y, Goujard C et al. Prolonged survival without neurological improvement in patients with AIDS-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy on potent combined antiretroviral therapy. J. Neurovirol. 5(4), 421-429 (1999).
88. Clifford DB, Yiannoutsos C, Glicksman M et al. HAART improves prognosis in HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Neurology 52(3), 623-625 (1999).
89. Antinori A, Cingolani A, Lorenzini P et al. Clinical epidemiology and survival of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: data from the Italian Registry Investigative Neuro AIDS (IRINA). J. Neurovirol. 9(Suppl. 1), 47-53 (2003).
90. Tantisiriwat W, Tebas P, Clifford DB, Powderly WG, Fichtenbaum CJ. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28(5), 1152-1154 (1999).
91. Albrecht H, Hoffmann C, Degen O et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy significantly improves the prognosis of patients with HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. AIDS 12(10), 1149-1154 (1998).
92. Taoufik Y, Delfraissy JF, Gasnault J. Highly active antiretroviral therapy does not improve survival of patients with high JC virus load in the cerebrospinal fluid at progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy diagnosis. AIDS 14(6), 758-759 (2000).
93. Miralles P, Berenguer J, Lacruz C et al. Inflammatory reactions in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 15(14), 1900-1902 (2001).
94. Safdar A, Rubocki RJ, Horvath JA, Narayan KK, Waldron RL. Fatal immune restoration disease in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: impact of antiretroviral therapy-associated immune reconstitution. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35(10), 1250-1257 (2002).
95. Di Giambenedetto S, Vago G, Pompucci A et al. Fatal inflammatory AIDS-associated PML with high CD4 counts on HAART: a new clinical entity? Neurology 63(12), 2452-2453 (2004).
96. Cheng VC, Yuen KY, Chan WM et al. Immunorestitution disease involving the innate and adaptive response. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30(6), 882-892 (2000).
97. Cinque P, Pierotti C, Vigano MG et al. The good and evil of HAART in HIV-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 358-363 (2001).
98. Berger JR, Levy RM, Flomenhoft D, Dobbs M. Predictive factors for prolonged survival in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann. Neurol. 44(3), 341-349 (1998).
99. Du Pasquier RA, Koralnik IJ. Inflammatory reaction in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: harmful or beneficial? J. Neurovirol. 9(Suppl. 1), 25-31 (2003).
100. Du Pasquier RA, Kuroda MJ, Schmitz JE et al. Low frequency of cytotoxic T lymphocytes against the novel HLA-A*0201-restricted JC virus epitope VP1 (p36) in patients with proven or possible progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Virol. 77(22), 11918-11926 (2003).
101. Gasnault J, Kahraman M, de Goer de Herve MG et al. Critical role of JC virus-specific CD4 T-cell responses in preventing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. AIDS 17(10), 1443-1449 (2003).
102. Arun B, Frenkel EP. Topoisomerase I inhibition with topotecan: pharmacologic and clinical issues. Exp. Opin. Pharmacother. 2(3), 491-505 (2001).
103. Kerr DA, Chang CF, Gordon J, Bjornsti MA, Khalili K. Inhibition of human neurotropic virus (JCV) DNA replication in glial cells by camptothecin. Virology 196(2), 612-618 (1993).
104. Vollmer-Haase J, Young P, Ringelstein EB. Efficacy of camptothecin in progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. Lancet 349(9062), 1366 (1997).
105. Royal W, 3rd, Dupont B, McGuire D et al. Topotecan in the treatment of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Neurovirol. 9(3), 411-419 (2003).
106. Colosimo C, Lebon P, Martelli M, Tumminelli F, Mandelli F. α-interferon therapy in a case of probable progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Acta Neurol. Belg. 92(1), 24-29 (1992).
107. Tashiro K, Doi S, Moriwaka F, Maruo Y, Nomura M. Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy with magnetic resonance imaging verification and therapeutic trials with interferon. J. Neurol. 234(6), 427-429 (1987).
108. Huang SS, Skolasky RL, Dal Pan GJ, Royal W III, McArthur JC. Survival prolongation in HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy treated with alpha-interferon: an observational study. J. Neurovirol. 4(3), 324-332 (1998).
109. Geschwind MD, Skolasky RI, Royal WS, McArthur JC. The relative contributions of HAART and alpha-interferon for therapy of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 353-357 (2001).
110. Przepiorka D, Jaeckle KA, Birdwell RR et al. Successful treatment of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with low-dose interleukin-2. Bone Marrow Transplant. 20(11), 983-987 (1997).
111. Baum S, Ashok A, Gee G et al. Early events in the life cycle of JC virus as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J. Neurovirol. 9(Suppl. 1), 32-37 (2003).
112. Atwood WJ. A combination of low-dose chlorpromazine and neutralizing antibodies inhibits the spread of JC virus (JCV) in a tissue culture model: implications for prophylactic and therapeutic treatment of progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy. J. Neurovirol. 7(4), 307-310 (2001).
113. Elphick GF, Querbes W, Jordan JA et al. The human polyomavirus, JCV, uses serotonin receptors to infect cells. Science 306(5700), 1380-1383 (2004).
114. Garcia De Viedma D, Diaz Infantes M, Miralles P et al. JC virus load in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: analysis of the correlation between the viral burden in cerebrospinal fluid, patient survival, and the volume of neurological lesions. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34(12), 1568-1575 (2002).
115. Du Pasquier RA, Kuroda MJ, Zheng Y et al. A prospective study demonstrates an association between JC virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and the early control of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Brain 127(Pt 9), 1970-1978 (2004).