Pharmacotherapeutic trials in adolescent alcohol use disorders: Opportunities and challenges

Alcohol and Alcoholism

Volumn 39, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 166-177

  Dawes, Michael A ^a   Johnson, Bankole A ^a  

^a Mays Cancer Center at UT Health San Antonio   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; ACAMPROSATE; ALCOHOL; BENZODIAZEPINE RECEPTOR AFFECTING AGENT; CITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; NALTREXONE; NEUROTRANSMITTER; ONDANSETRON; OPIATE ANTAGONIST; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN AGONIST; SEROTONIN ANTAGONIST; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TIANEPTINE; TOPIRAMATE; VIQUALINE; ZIMELDINE;

ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT DISEASE; ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOLISM; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SCREENING; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FAMILY HISTORY; GABAERGIC TRANSMISSION; GENE INTERACTION; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; NAUSEA; NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; ONSET AGE; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; SIDE EFFECT; TOXICOKINETICS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT PLANNING;

ALCOHOLISM; ANIMALS; CLINICAL TRIALS; HUMANS; NARCOTIC ANTAGONISTS; SEROTONIN AGENTS;

EID: 2342648923     PISSN: 07350414     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agh045     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. Addolorato, G., Balducci, G., Capristo, E., Attilia, M. L., Taggi, F., Gasbarrini, G. and Ceccanti, M. (1999) Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: a randomized comparative study versus benzodiazepine. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 23, 1596-1604.
2. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
3. Anderson, S. L., Dumont, N. L. and Teicher, M. H. (1997) Developmental differences in dopamine synthesis inhibition by (+/-)-7-OH-DPAT. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 356, 173-181.
4. Anthony, J. C. and Petronis, K. R. (1995) Early-onset drug use and risk of later drug problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 40, 9-15.
5. Babor, T. F., Hofmann, M., DelBoca, F. K., Hesselbrock, V., Meyer, R. E., Dolinsky, Z. S. and Rounsaville, B. (1992) Types of alcoholics, I. Evidence for an empirically derived typology based on indicators of vulnerability and severity. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 599-608.
6. Barnes, N. M. and Sharp, T. (1999) A review of central 5-HT receptors and their function. Neuropharmacology 38, 1083-1152.
7. Biederman, J., Wilens, T., Mick, E., Faraone, S. V., Weber, W., Curtis, S., Thornell, A., Pfister, K., Jetton, J. G. and Soriano, J. (1997) Is ADHD a risk factor for psychoactive substance use disorders? Findings from a four-year prospective follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 21-29.
8. Bradbury, A. J., Costall, B., Domeney, A. M. and Naylor, R. J. (1985) Laterality of dopamine function and neuroleptic action in the amygdala in the rat. Neuropharmacology 24, 1163-1170.
9. Brown, S. A., Tapert, S. F., Tate, S. R. and Abrantes, A. M. (2000) The role of alcohol in adolescent relapse and outcome. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 32, 107-115.
10. Brown, S. A., D'Amico, E. J., McCarthy, D. M. and Tapert, S. F. (2001) Four-year outcomes from adolescent alcohol and drug treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 62, 381-388.
11. Brown, S. A. and D'Amico, E. J. (2003) Outcomes of alcohol treatment for adolescents. Recent Developments in Alcoholism 16, 289-312.
12. Bukstein, O. G., Brent, D. A. and Kaminer, Y. (1989) Comorbidity of substance misuse and other psychiatric disorders in adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 146, 1131-1141.
13. Castanon, N., Konsman, J. P., Medina, C., Chauvet, N. and Dantzer, R. (2003) Chronic treatment with the antidepressant tianeptine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced Fos expression in the rat paraventricular nucleus and HPA axis activation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28, 19-34.
14. Chamba, G., Lemoine, P., Flachaire, E., Ferry, N., Quincy, C., Sassard, J., Ferber, C., Mocaer, E., Kamoun, A. and Renaud, B. (1991) Increased serotonin platelet uptake after tianeptine administration in depressed patients. Biological Psychiatry 30, 609-617.
15. Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. R. and Potenza, M. N. (2003) Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1041-1052.
16. Charney, D. S., Nemeroff, C. B., Lewis, L., Laden, S. K., Gorman, J. M., Laska, E. M., Borenstein, M., Bowden, C. L., Caplan, A., Emslie, G. J., Evans, D. L., Geller, B., Grabowski, L. E., Herson, J., Kalin, N. H., Keck, P. E., Jr, Kirsch, I., Krishnan, K. R., Kupfer, D. J., Makuch, R. W., Miller, F. G., Pardes, H., Post, R., Reynolds, M. M., Roberts, L., Rosenbaum, J. F., Rosenstein, D. L., Rubinow, D. R., Rush, A. J., Ryan, N. D., Sachs, G. S., Schatzberg, A. F., Solomon, S. and Consensus Development Panel (2002) National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association consensus statement on the use of placebo in clinical trials of mood disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 262-270.
17. Chugani, H. T., Phelps, M. E. and Mazziotta, J. C. (1987) Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Annals of Neurology 22, 487-497.
18. Clark, D. B. and Neighbors, B. (1996) Adolescent substance misuse and internalizing disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 5, 45-57.
19. Clark, D. B., Kirisci, L. and Tarter, R. E. (1998) Adolescent versus adult onset and the development of substance use disorders in males. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 49, 115-121.
20. Clark. D. B., Bukstein, O. and Cornelius, J. (2002) Alcohol use disorders in adolescents: epidemiology, diagnosis, psychosocial interventions, and pharmacological treatment. Paediatric Drugs 4, 493-502.
21. Clark, D. B. and Winters, K. C. (2002) Measuring risks and outcomes in substance use disorders prevention research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70, 1207-1223.
22. Cloninger, C. R. (1987) Neurogenetic adaptive mechanisms in alcoholism. Science 236, 410-416.
23. Cornelius, J. R., Bukstein, O. G., Birmaher, B., Salloum, I. M., Lynch, K., Pollock, N. K., Gershon, S. and Clark, D. (2001) Fluoxetine in adolescents with major depression and an alcohol use disorder: an open-label trial. Addictive Behaviors 26, 735-739.
24. Cornelius, J. R., Bukstein, O., Salloum, I. and Clark, D. (2003) Alcohol and psychiatric comorbidity. Recent Developments in Alcoholism 16, 361-374.
25. Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., Federman, E. and Angold, A. (1999) Development of psychiatric comorbidity with substance misuse in adolescents: effects of timing and sex. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 28, 298-311.
26. Crews, F. T., Braun, C. J., Hoplight, B., Switzer, R. C., IIIrd, and Knapp, D. J. (2000) Binge ethanol consumption causes differential brain damage in young adolescent rats compared with adult rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24, 1712-1723.
27. Crowley, T. J. and Riggs, P. D. (1995) Adolescent substance use disorder with conduct disorder and comorbid conditions. NIDA Research Monograph 156, 49-111.
28. Curzon, G., Kennett, G. A., Sarna, G. S. and Whitton, P. S. (1992) The effects of tianeptine and other antidepressants on a rat model of depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 160(Suppl.), 51-55.
29. Davidson, D., Swift, R. and Fitz, E. (1996) Naltrexone increases the latency to drink alcohol in social drinkers. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20, 732-739.
30. Dawes, M. A., Antelman, S. M., Vanyukov, M. M., Giancola, P., Tarter, R. E., Susman, E. J., Mezzich, A. and Clark, D. B. (2000) Developmental sources of variation in liability to adolescent substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 61, 3-14.
31. De Witte, P., Dahchour, A., Quertemont, E., Durbin, P. and Chabac, S. (1996) Acamprosate decreases alcohol behavioral dependence and hypermotility after alcohol withdrawal but increases inhibitory amino-acids in alcohol-attracted inbred rats using microdialysis of the nucleus accumbens. In Acamprosate in Relapse Prevention of Alcoholism, Soyka, M. ed, pp. 71-91. Springer, Berlin.
32. Deas, D. and Thomas, S. E. (2001) An overview of controlled studies of adolescent substance misuse treatment. American Journal on Addictions 10, 178-189.
33. Deykin, E. Y., Levy, J. C. and Wells, V. (1987) Adolescent depression, alcohol and drug abuse. American Journal of Public Health 77, 178-182.
34. Deykin, E. Y. and Buka, S. L. (1997) Prevalence and risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder among chemically dependent adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 752-757.
35. Di Chiara, G. and Imperato, A. (1988) Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 85, 5274-5278.
36. Falconer, D. S. (1965) The inheritance of liability to certain diseases, estimated from the incidence among relatives. Annals of Human Genetics 29, 51-76.
37. Fattaccini, C. M., Bolanos-Jimenez, F., Gozlan, H. and Hamon, M. (1990) Tianeptine stimulates uptake of 5-hydroxytryptamine in vivo in the rat brain. Neuropharmacology 29, 1-8.
38. Favre, J. D., Guelfi-Sozzi, C., Delalleau, B. and Lôo, H. (1997) Tianeptine and alcohol dependence. European Neuropsychopharmacology 7, S347-S351.
39. Fils-Aime, M. L., Eckardt, M. J., George, D. T., Brown, G. L., Mefford, I. and Linnoila, M. (1996) Early-onset alcoholics have lower cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels than late-onset alcoholics. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 211-216.
40. Finkelstein, J. W. (1994) The effect of developmental changes in adolescence on drug disposition. Journal of Adolescent Health 15, 612-618.
41. Fleming, J. P., Kellam, S. G. and Brown, C. H. (1982) Early predictors of age at first use of alcohol, marijuana, and cigarettes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 9, 285-303.
42. Froehlich, J., O'Malley, S., Hyytia, P., Davidson, D. and Farren, C. (2003) Preclinical and clinical studies on naltrexone: what have they taught each other? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27, 533-539.
43. Gallimberti, L., Canton, G., Gentile, N., Ferri, M., Cibin, M., Ferrara, S. D., Fadda, F. and Gessa, G. L. (1989) Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid for treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Lancet 2, 787-789.
44. Gelbard, H. A., Teicher, M. H., Faedda, G. and Baldessarini, R. J. (1989) Postnatal development of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor sites in rat striatum. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research 49, 123-130.
45. Gianoulakis, C. (1998) Alcohol-seeking behavior. The roles of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the endogenous opioid system. Alcohol Health and Research World 22, 202-210.
46. Goldstein, R. Z. and Volkow, N. D. (2002) Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 1642-1652.
47. Gorelick, D. A. and Paredes, A. (1992) Effect of fluoxetine on alcohol consumption in male alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 16, 261-265.
48. Grant, B. F. and Dawson, D. A. (1997) Age at onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol misuse and dependence: results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse 9, 103-110.
49. Greenhill, L. L., Vitiello, B., Riddle, M. A., Fisher, P., Shockey, E., March, J. S., Levine, J., Fried, J., Abikoff, H., Zito, J. M., McCracken, J. T., Findling, R. L., Robinson, J., Cooper, T. B., Davies, M., Varipatis, E., Labellarte, M. J., Scahill, L., Walkup, J. T., Capasso, L. and Rosengarten, J. (2003) Review of safety assessment methods used in pediatric psychopharmacology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 627-633.
50. Grunbaum, J. A., Kann, L., Kinchen, S. A., Williams, B., Ross, J. G., Lowry, R. and Kolbe, L. (2002) Youth risk behavior surveillance - United States, 2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries/Centers for Disease Control 51, 1-62.
51. Hagan, R. M., Jones, B. J., Jordan, C. C. and Tyers, M. B. (1990) Effect of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists on responses to selective activation of mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways in the rat. British Journal of Pharmacology 99, 227-232.
52. Hannesdottir, H., Tyrfingsson, T. and Piha, J. (2001) Psychosocial functioning and psychiatric comorbidity among substance-abusing Icelandic adolescents. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 55, 43-48.
53. Heinala, P., Alho, H., Kiianmaa, K., Lonnqvist, J., Kuoppasalmi, K. and Sinclair, J. D. (2001) Targeted use of naltrexone without prior detoxification in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a factorial double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 21, 287-292.
54. Hemby, S. E., Johnson, B. A. and Dworkin, S. I. (1997) Neurobiological basis of drug reinforcement. In Drug Addiction and its Treatment: Nexus of Neuroscience and Behavior, Johnson, B. A. and Roache, J. D., eds, pp. 137-169. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
55. Hibbell, B., Andersson, B., Ahlstrom, S., et al. (2001) The 1999 ESPAD Report: Alcohol Use and Other Drug Use Among Students in 30 European Countries. Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs, Stockholm.
56. Huttenlocher, P. R. (1984) Synapse elimination and plasticity in developing human cerebral cortex. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 88, 488-496.
57. Ioannidis, J. P. A. and Lau, J. (2001) Safety reporting in clinical trials [reply]. Journal of the American Medical Association 285, 2077-2078.
58. Joanning, H., Quinn, W., Thomas, F. and Mullen, R. (1992) Treating adolescent substance abuse: a comparison of family systems therapy, group therapy, and family drug education. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 18, 345-356.
59. Johnson, B. A. and Cowen, P. J. (1993) Alcohol-induced reinforcement: dopamine and 5-HT3 receptor interactions in animals and humans. Drug Development Research 30, 153-169.
60. Johnson, B. A. and Ait-Daoud, N. (2000) Neuropharmacological treatments for alcoholism: scientific basis and clinical findings. Psychopharmacology 149, 327-344.
61. Johnson, B. A., Cloninger, C. R., Roache, J. D., Bordnick, P. S. and Ruiz, P. (2000a) Age of onset as a discriminator between alcoholic subtypes in a treatment-seeking outpatient population. American Journal on Addictions 9, 17-27.
62. Johnson, B. A., Roache, J. D., Javors, M. A., DiClemente, C. C., Cloninger, C. R., Prihoda, T. J., Bordnick, P. S., Ait-Daoud, N. and Hensler, J. (2000b) Ondansetron for reduction of drinking among biologically predisposed alcoholic patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association 284, 963-971.
63. Johnson, B. A., Ait-Daoud, N., Bowden, C. L., DiClemente, C. C., Roache, J. D., Lawson, K., Javors, M. A. and Ma, J. Z. (2003a) Oral topiramate for treatment of alcohol dependence: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361, 1677-1685.
64. Johnson, B. A., Ait-Daoud, N., Ma, J. Z. and Wang, Y. (2003b) Ondansetron reduces mood disturbance among biologically predisposed, alcohol-dependent individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27, 1773-1779.
65. Johnson, S. W. and North, R. A. (1992) Opioids excite dopamine neurons by hyperpolarization of local interneurons. Journal of Neuroscience 12, 483-488.
66. Kabel, D. I. and Petty, F. (1996) A placebo-controlled, double-blind study of fluoxetine in severe alcohol dependence: adjunctive pharmacotherapy during and after inpatient treatment. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20, 780-784.
67. Kalivas, P. W. and Nakamura, M. (1999) Neural systems for behavioral activation and reward. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 9, 223-227.
68. Kaminer, Y. (2001) Alcohol and drug abuse: adolescent substance misuse treatment: where do we go from here? Psychiatric Services 52, 147-149.
69. King, A. C., Volpicelli, J. R., Frazer, A. and O'Brien, C. P. (1997) Effect of naltrexone on subjective alcohol response in subjects at high and low risk for future alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology 129, 15-22.
70. Koob, G. F. (2003) Alcoholism: allostasis and beyond. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27, 232-243.
71. Kranzler, H. R., Burleson, J. A., Korner, P., Del Boca, F. K., Bohn, M. J., Brown, J. and Liebowitz, N. (1995) Placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine as an adjunct to relapse prevention in alcoholics. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 391-397.
72. Kranzler, H. R., Burleson, J. A., Brown, J. and Babor, T. F. (1996) Fluoxetine treatment seems to reduce the beneficial effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy in type B alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20, 1534-1541.
73. Kranzler, H. R. and Van Kirk, J. (2001) Efficacy of naltrexone and acamprosate for alcoholism treatment: a meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 25, 1335-1341.
74. Kranzler, H. R., Pierucci-Lagha, A., Feinn, R. and Hernandez-Avila, C. (2003) Effects of ondansetron in early- versus late-onset alcoholics: a prospective, open-label study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27, 1150-1155.
75. Krystal, J. H., Cramer. J. A., Krol, W. F., Kirk, G. F. and Rosenheck, R. A. (2001) Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. New England Journal of Medicine 345, 1734-1739.
76. Lander, E. S. and Schork, N. J. (1994) Genetic dissection of complex traits. Science 265, 2037-2048.
77. Le Magnen, J., Tran, G., Durlach, J. and Martin, C. (1987) Dose-dependent suppression of the high alcohol intake of chronically intoxicated rats by Ca-acetyl homotaurinate. Alcohol 4, 97-102.
78. LeMarquand, D., Pihl, R. O. and Benkelfat, C. (1994a) Serotonin and alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence: findings of animal studies. Biological Psychiatry 36, 395-421.
79. LeMarquand, D., Pihl, R. O. and Benkelfat, C. (1994b) Serotonin and alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence: clinical evidence. Biological Psychiatry 36, 326-337.
80. Lesch, O. M., Riegler, A., Gutierrez, K., Hertling, I., Ramskogler, K., Semler B., Zoghlami, A., Benda, N. and Walter, H. (2001) The European acamprosate trials: conclusions for research and therapy. Journal of Biomedical Science 8, 89-95.
81. Li, J., Stokes, S. A. and Woeckener, A. (1998) A tale of novel intoxication: a review of the effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid with recommendations for management. Annals of Emergency Medicine 31, 729-736.
82. Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., Diamond, G. S., Barrett, K. and Tejeda. M. (2001) Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent drug abuse: results of a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 27, 651-688.
83. Lidow, M. S., Goldman-Rakic, P. S. and Rakic, P. (1991) Synchronized overproduction of neurotransmitter receptors in diverse regions of the primate cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 88, 10218-10221.
84. Lidow, M. S. and Rakic, P. (1992) Scheduling of monoaminergic neurotransmitter receptor expression in the primate neocortex during postnatal development. Cerebral Cortex 2, 401-416.
85. Lôo, H., Malka, R., Defrance, R., Barrucand, D., Benard, J. Y., Niox-Riviere, H., Raab, A., Sarda, A., Vachonfrance, G. and Kamoun, A. (1988) Tianeptine and amitriptyline: controlled double-blind trial in depressed alcoholic patients. Neuropsychobiology 19, 79-85.
86. Lovinger, D. M. (1999) 5-HT3 receptors and the neural actions of alcohols: an increasingly exciting topic. Neurochemistry International 35, 125-130.
87. Mamelak, M. (1989) Gammahydroxybutyrate: an endogenous regulator of energy metabolism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 13, 187-198.
88. Maremmani, I., Lamanna, F. and Tagliamonte, A. (2001) Long-term therapy using GHB (sodium gamma hydroxybutyrate) for treatment resistant chronic alcoholics. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 33, 135-142.
89. Martin, C. S., Kaczynski, N. A., Maisto, S. A., Bukstein, O. M. and Moss, H. B. (1995) Patterns of DSM-IV alcohol misuse and dependence symptoms in adolescent drinkers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56, 672-680.
90. Matthews, R. T. and German, D. C. (1984) Electrophysiological evidence for excitation of rat ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons by morphine. Neuroscience 11, 617-625.
91. McBride, W. J., Lovinger, D. M., Machu, T., Thielen, R. J., Rodd, Z. A., Murphy, J. M., Roache, J. D. and Johnson, B. A. (2004) Serotonin-3 receptors in the actions of alcohol, alcohol reinforcement and alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.
92. Mennini, T., Mocaer, E. and Garattini, S. (1987) Tianeptine, a selective enhancer of serotonin uptake in rat brain. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 336, 478-482.
93. Merola, J. L. and Liederman, J. (1985) Developmental changes in hemispheric independence. Child Development 56, 1184-1194.
94. Meyers, K., Webb, A., Frantz, J. and Randall, M. (2003) What does it take to retain substance-abusing adolescents in research protocols? Delineation of effort required, strategies undertaken, costs incurred, and 6-month post-treatment differences by retention difficulty. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 69, 73-85.
95. Mikulich, S. K., Hall, S. K., Whitmore, E. A. and Crowley, T. J. (2001) Concordance between DSM-III-R and DSM-IV diagnoses of substance use disorders in adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 61, 237-248.
96. Miller, F. G. (2000) Placebo-controlled trials in psychiatric research: an ethical perspective. Biological Psychiatry 47, 707-716.
97. Moghaddam, B. and Bolinao, M. L. (1994) Glutamatergic antagonists attenuate ability of dopamine uptake blockers to increase extracellular levels of dopamine: implications for tonic influence of glutamate on dopamine release. Synapse 18, 337-342.
98. Molina, B. S. and Pelham, W. E., Jr. (2003) Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 497-507.
99. Monti, P. M., Rohsenow, D. J., Hutchison, K. E., Swift, R. M., Mueller, T. I., Colby, S. M., Brown, R. A., Gulliver, S. B., Gordon, A. and Abrams, D. B. (1999) Naltrexone's effect on cue-elicited craving among alcoholics in treatment. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 23, 1386-1394.
100. Myrick, H., Brady, K. T. and Malcolm, R. (2001) New developments in the pharmacotherapy of alcohol dependence. American Journal on Addictions 10, 3-15.
101. Naranjo, C. A. and Knoke, D. M. (2001) The role of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in reducing alcohol consumption. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62, 18-25.
102. Nickel, T., Sonntag, A., Schill, J., Zobel, A. W., Ackl, N., Brunnauer, A., Murck, H., Ising, M., Yassouridis, A., Steiger, A., Zihl, J. and Holsboer, F. (2003) Clinical and neurobiological effects of tianeptine and paroxetine in major depression. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 23, 155-168.
103. NIDA News Release (2002) 2002 Monitoring The Future Survey Shows Decrease in Use of Marijuana, Club Drugs, Cigarettes and Tobacco. Available at: http://www.nida.nih.gov/newsroom/02/NR12-6.html January 5th 2004.
104. Niederhofer, H. and Staffen, W. (2003) Acamprosate and its efficacy in treating alcohol dependent adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 12, 144-148.
105. Niederhofer, H., Staffen, W. and Mair, A. (2003) Tianeptine may be a useful adjunct in the treatment of alcohol dependence of adolescents. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 27, 136.
106. Nimmerrichter, A. A., Walter, H., Gutierrez-Lobos, K. E. and Lesch, O. M. (2002) Double-blind controlled trial of gamma-hydroxybutyrate and clomethiazole in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol and Alcoholism 37, 67-73.
107. O'Malley, S. S., Jaffe, A. J., Chang, G., Schottenfeld, R. S., Meyer, R. E. and Rounsaville, B. (1992) Naltrexone and coping skills therapy for alcohol dependence: a controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 881-887.
108. Palfai, T., Davidson, D. and Swift, R. (1999) Influence of naltrexone on cue-elicited craving among hazardous drinkers: the moderational role of positive outcome expectancies. Experimental and Clinical Psvchopharmacology 7, 266-273.
109. Patton, W. and Noller, P. (1994) The Offer Self-Image Questionnaire for Adolescents: psychometric properties and factor structure. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23, 19-41.
110. Pettinati, H. M., Volpicelli, J. R., Kranzler, H. R., Luck, G., Rukstalis, M. R. and Cnaan, A. (2000) Sertraline treatment for alcohol dependence: interactive effects of medication and alcoholic subtype. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24, 1041-1049.
111. Plant, M. and Miller, P. (2001) Young people and alcohol: an international insight. Alcohol and Alcoholism 36, 513-515.
112. Pollock, N. K. and Martin, C. S. (1999) Diagnostic orphans: adolescents with alcohol symptoms who do not qualify for DSM-IV misuse or dependence diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 897-901.
113. Rakic, P., Bourgeois, J. P. and Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1994) Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: implications for learning, memory, and mental illness. Progress in Brain Research 102, 227-243.
114. Roberts, L. W., Lauriello, J., Geppert, C. and Keith, S. J. (2001) Placebos and paradoxes in psychiatric research: an ethics perspective. Biological Psychiatry 49, 887-893.
115. Robins, L. N. and McEvoy, L. (1990) Conduct problems as predictors of substance abuse. In Straight and Devious Pathways from Childhood to Adulthood, Robins, L. N. and Rutter, M., eds, pp. 182-204. Cambridge University Press, New York.
116. Rogers, A. S. (1994) A research agenda for the study of therapeutic agents in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 15, 672-678.
117. Seeman, P., Bzowej, N. H., Guan, H. C. et al. (1987) Human brain dopamine receptors in children and aging adults. Synapse 1, 399-404.
118. Skradski, S. and White, H. S. (2000) Topiramate blocks kainate-evoked cobalt influx into cultured neurons. Epilepsia 41(Suppl. 1), S45-S47.
119. Smith, K. M., Larive, L. L. and Romanelli, E (2002) Club drugs: methylenedioxymethamphetamine, flunitrazepam, ketamine hydrochloride, and gamma-hydroxybutyrate. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 59, 1067-1076.
120. Spanagel, R. and Holter, S. M. (2000) Pharmacological validation of a new animal model of alcoholism. Journal of Neural Transmission 107, 669-680.
121. Spear, L. P. (2000) The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 417-463.
122. Spear, L. P. (2002) The adolescent brain and the college drinker: biological basis of propensity to use and misuse alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 14, 71-81.
123. Spear, S. F., Ciesla, J. R. and Skala, S. Y. (1999) Relapse patterns among adolescents treated for chemical dependency. Substance Use and Misuse 34, 1795-1815.
124. Srisurapanont, M. and Jarusuraisin, N. (2002) Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD001867.
125. Stewart, D. G. and Brown, S. A. (1995) Withdrawal and dependency symptoms among students with serious alcohol and drug problems. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse 7, 63-72.
126. Streeton, C. and Whelan, G. (2001) Naltrexone, a relapse prevention maintenance treatment of alcohol dependence: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Alcohol and Alcoholism 36, 544-552.
127. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) (2003) 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA): Highlights. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/nhsda/2k1nhsda/vol1/highlights.htm January 5th 2004.
128. Swift, R. M., Whelihan, W., Kuznetsov, O., Buongiorno, G. and Hsuing, H. (1994) Naltrexone-induced alterations in human ethanol intoxication. American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 1463-1467.
129. Swift, R. M., Davidson, D., Whelihan, W. and Kuznetsov, O. (1996) Ondansetron alters human alcohol intoxication. Biological Psychiatry 40, 514-521.
130. Tapert, S. F. and Brown, S. A. (1999) Neuropsychological correlates of adolescent substance abuse: four-year outcomes. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 5, 475-487.
131. Tarazi, F. I., Tomasini, E. C. and Baldessarini, R. J. (1998) Postnatal development of dopamine D4-like receptors in rat forebrain regions: comparison with D2-like receptors. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research 110, 227-233.
132. Tarazi, F. I., Tomasini, E. C. and Baldessarini, R. J. (1999) Postnatal development of dopamine D1-like receptors in rat cortical and striatolimbic brain regions: an autoradiographic study. Developmental Neuroscience 21, 43-49.
133. Teicher, M. H., Gallitano, A. L., Gelbard, H. A., Evans, H. K., Marsh, E. R., Booth, R. G. and Baldessarini, R. J. (1991) Dopamine D1 autoreceptor function: possible expression in developing rat prefrontal cortex and striatum. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research 63, 229-235.
134. Tubman, J. G., Vicary, J. R., von Eye, A. and Lerner, J. V. (1990) Longitudinal substance use and adult adjustment. Journal of Substance Abuse 2, 317-334.
135. Tunnicliff, G. (1992) Significance of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the brain. General Pharmacology 23, 1027-1034.
136. Vitiello, B., Riddle, M. A., Greenhill, L. L., March, J. S., Levine, J., Schachar, R. J., Abikoff, H., Zito, J. M., McCracken, J. T., Walkup, J. T., Findling, R. L., Robinson, J., Cooper, T. B., Davies, M., Varipatis, E., Labellarte, M. J., Scahill, L. and Capasso, L. (2003) How can we improve the assessment of safety in child and adolescent psychopharmacology? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 634-641.
137. White, H. R., Xie, M., Thompson, W., Loeber, R. and Stouthamer-Locher, M. (2001) Psychopathology as a predictor of adolescent drug use trajectories. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 15, 210-218.
138. White, H. S., Brown, S. D., Woodhead, J. H., Skeen, G. A. and Wolf, H. H. (2000) Topiramate modulates GABA-evoked currents in murine cortical neurons by a nonbenzodiazepine mechanism. Epilepsia 41, S17-S20.
139. Whitmore, E. A., Mikulich, S. K., Thompson, L. L., Riggs, P. D., Aarons, G. A. and Crowley, T. J. (1997) Influences on adolescent substance dependence: conduct disorder, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and gender. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 47, 87-97.
140. Winters, K. C. (1999) Treating adolescents with substance use disorders: an overview of practice issues and treatment outcome. Substance Abuse 20, 203-225.
141. Winters, K. C., Latimer, W. W. and Stinchfield, R. (2001) Assessing adolescent substance use. In Innovations in Adolescent Substance Abuse Interventions, Wagner, E. F. and Waldron, H. B., eds, pp. 1-30. Pergamon, New York.
142. Young, S. N., Pihl, R. O., Benkelfat, C., Palmour, R., Ellenbogen, M. and LeMarquand, D. (1996) The effect of low brain serotonin on mood and aggression in humans: influence of baseline mood and genetic factors. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 398, 45-50.