Goal-Setting Paradoxes? Trade-Offs Between Working Hard and Working Smart: The United States Versus China

Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 188-202

  Fang, Eric ^a,b   Palmatier, Robert W ^a   Evans, Kenneth R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

^b SEATTLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptive selling; Goal difficulty; Goal setting; Goal specificity; Sales planning; Working hard; Working smart

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842606459     PISSN: 00920703     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0092070303261413     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. Agarwal, Sanjeev, Thomas E. Decarlo, and Shyam B. Vyas. 1999. "Leadership Behavior and Organizational Commitment: A Comparative Study of American and Indian Salespersons." Journal of International Business Studies 30 (4): 727-743.
2. Anderson, James C. and David W. Gerbing, 1988. "Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach." Psychological Bulletin 103 (3): 411-425.
3. Armstrong, Scott J. and Terry S. Overton. 1977. "Estimating Non-Response Bias in Mail Surveys." Journal of Marketing Research 14 (August): 396-402.
4. Austin, James T. and Jeffrey B. Vancouver. 1996. "Goal Constructs in Psychology: Structure, Process, and Content." Psychological Bulletin 120 (3): 338-375.
5. Bagozzi, Richard P. and Utpal Dholakia. 1999. "Goal Setting and Goal Striving in Consumer Behavior." Journal of Marketing 63 (Special Issue): 19-32.
6. _, Youjae Yi, and Lynn W. Phillips. 1991. "Assessing Construct Validity in Organizational Research." Administrative Science Quarterly 36 (September): 421-458.
7. Baron, Robert. S. 1986. "Distraction-Conflict Theory: Progress and Problems." In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Ed. L. Berkowitz. New York: Academic Press, 1-40.
8. Behrman, Douglas N. and William D. Perreault. 1982. "Measuring the Performance of Industrial Salespersons." Journal of Business Research 10 (September): 355-369.
9. Brown, Stephen P., William L. Cron, and John W. Slocum Jr. 1997. "Effects of Goal-Directed Emotions on Salesperson Volitions, Behavior, and Performance: A Longitudinal Study." Journal of Marketing 61 (January): 39-50.
10. _ and Robert A. Peterson. 1994. "The Effect of Effort on Sales Performance and Job Satisfaction." Journal of Marketing 58 (April): 70-80.
11. Brown, Tom J., John C. Mowen, D. Todd Donavan, and Jane W. Licata. 2002. "The Customer Orientation of Service Workers: Personality Trait Effects on Self- and Supervisor Performance Ratings." Journal of Marketing Research 39 (February): 110-119.
12. Campbell, Donald J. 1984. "The Effects of Goal-Contingent Payment on the Performance of a Complex Task." Personnel Psychology 37 (1): 23-40.
13. Carver, Charles S. and Michael F. Scheier. 1982. "Control Theory: A Useful Conceptual Framework for Personality-Social, Clinical, and Health Psychology." Psychological Bulletin 92 (1): 111-135.
14. Chang, C. 1985. "Family Influence on School Achievement in China." U.S.-China Friendship 9:20.
15. Chirkov, Valery, Richard M. Ryan, Youngmee Kim, and Ulas Kaplan. 2003. "Differentiating Autonomy From Individualism and Independence: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective on Internalization of Cultural Orientations and Well-Being." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (1): 97-110.
16. Chowdhury, Jhinuk. 1993. "The Motivational Impact of Sales Quotas on Effort." Journal of Marketing Research 30 (February): 28-41.
17. Cottrell, N. 1972. "Social Facilitation." In Experimental Social Psychology. Ed. C. McClintock. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 185-236.
18. Cravens, David W., Thomas N. Ingram, Raymond W. LaForge, and Clifford E. Young. 1993. "Behavior-Based and Outcome-Based Salesforce Control Systems." Journal of Marketing 57 (October): 47-59.
19. Dalrymple, Douglas J. and William L. Cron. 1998. Sales Management Concepts and Cases, 6th ed. New York: John Wiley.
20. Douglas, Susan P. and Samuel C. Craig. 1983. International Marketing Research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
21. Earley, Christopher P., Terry Connolly, and Goran Ekegren. 1989. "Goals Strategy Development and Task Performance: Some Limits on the Efficiency of Goal Setting." Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (1): 24-33.
22. _ and Brian C. Perry. 1987. "Work Plan Availability and Performance: An Assessment of Task Strategy Priming on Subsequent Task Completion." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 39 (3): 279-302.
23. _, Pauline Wojnaroski, and William Prest. 1987. "Task Planning and Energy Expended: Exploration of How Goals Influence Performance." Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1): 107-114.
24. Eisenberg, Eric M. 1984. "Ambiguity as Strategy in Organizational Communication." Communication Monographs 51 (September): 227-242.
25. Gerbing, David W. and James C. Anderson. 1988. "An Updated Paradigm for Scale Development Incorporating Unidimensionality and Its Assessment." Journal of Marketing Research 25 (May): 186-192.
26. Gudykunst, William B., Yuko Matsumoto, Stella Ting-Toomey, Tsukasa Nishida, Kwangsu Kim, and Heyman Sam. 1996. "The Influence of Cultural Individualist-Collectivism, Self-Construals, and Individual Values on Communication Styles Across Cultures." Human Communication Research 22 (June): 510-543.
27. _ and Stella Ting-Toomey. 1988. Culture and Interpersonal Communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
28. Hall, Edward. T. 1976. Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday.
29. Harkins, S. and J. Jackson. 1985. "The Role of Evaluation in Eliminating Social Loafing." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 11 (4): 457-465.
30. Hewitt Associates. 2001. "Hot Topics in Sales Management and Sales Compensation." Hewitt Associates Press Release, June 19, pp. 1-3.
31. Hofstede, Geert. 1997. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
32. Jaworski, Bernard J. and Ajay K. Kohli. 1991. "Supervisor Feedback: Alternative Types and Their Impact on Salespeople's Performance and Satisfaction." Journal of Marketing Research 28 (May): 190-201.
33. Kanfer, Ruth and Phillip L. Ackerman. 1989. "Motivational and Cognitive Abilities: An Integrative/Aptitude Treatment Interaction Approach to Skill Acquisition." Journal of Applied Psychology 74 (4): 657-690.
34. Klein, Howard J. 1989. "An Integrated Control Theory Model of Work Motivation." Academy of Management Review 14 (2): 150-172.
35. Latham, Gary P. and Edwin A. Locke. 1991. "Self-Regulation Through Goal-Setting." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50 (2): 212-247.
36. Liefeld, John P., Marjorie Wall, and Louise A. Heslop. 2000. "Cross-Cultural Comparison of Consumer Information Processing Styles." In Cross-National Consumer Psychographics. Ed. Lynn R Kahle. New York: International Business Press, 29-45.
37. Locke, Edwin A. 1968. "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 3 (May): 157-189.
38. _, Dong-Ok Chah, Scott Harrison, and Nancy Lustgarten. 1989. "Separating the Effects of Goal Specificity From Goal Level." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 43 (2): 270-287.
39. _ and Gary P. Latham. 1990. A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
40. _, Karyll M. Shaw, Lisa M. Saari, and Gary P. Latham. 1981. "Goal-Setting and Task Performance." Psychological Bulletin 90 (1): 125-152.
41. Marchetti, Michele. 2000. "The Art of Setting Sales Quotas." In Sales & Marketing Management 152 (April): 101.
42. Marks, Ronald, Douglas W. Vorhies, and Gordon J. Badovick. 1996. "A Psychometric Evaluation of the ADAPTS Scale: A Critique and Recommendations. " Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management 16 (Fall): 53-65.
43. Mento, Anthony J., Robert P. Steel, and Ronald J. Karren. 1987. "A Meta-Analytic Study of the Effects of Goal Setting on Task Performance: 1966-1984." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 39 (1): 52-83.
44. Moorman, Christine. 1990. "The Effects of Stimulus and Consumer Characteristics on the Utilization of Nutrition Information." Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December): 362-374.
45. Naylor, James C. and Daniel R. Ilgen. 1984. "Goal-Setting: A Theoretical Analysis of a Motivational Technology." Research in Organizational Behavior 6 (6): 95-140.
46. Ping, Robert A., Jr. 1995. "A Parsimonious Estimating Technique for Interaction and Quadratic Latent Variables." Journal of Marketing Research 32 (August): 336-347.
47. Reardon, Kathleen K. and Ben Enis. 1990. "Establishing a Company-Wide Customer Orientation Through Persuasive Internal Marketing." Management Communication Quarterly 3 (February): 376-387.
48. Rossano, Matt J. and Wendy P. Reardon. 1999. "Goal Specificity and the Acquisition of Survey Knowledge." Environment and Behavior 31 (May): 395-412.
49. Roy, Abhik, Peter G. P. Walters, and Luk T. K. Sherriff. 2001. "Chinese Puzzles and Paradoxes: Conducting Business Research in China." Journal of Business Research 52 (2): 203-210.
50. Scott, Susanne G. and Reginald A. Bruce. 1994. "Determinants of Innovative Behavior: A Path Model to Individual Innovation in the Workplace." Academy of Management Journal 37 (June): 580-607.
51. Shalley, Christina E. 1995. "Effects of Coaction, Expected Evaluation, and Goal Setting on Creativity and Productivity." Academy of Management Journal 38 (2): 483-503.
52. Si, Gangyan, Sabine Rethorst, and Klaus Willimczik. 1995. "Causal Attribution Perception in Sports Achievement: A Cross-Cultural Study on Attributional Concepts in Germany and China." Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 26 (September): 537-553.
53. Smith, Ken G., Edwin A. Locke, and David Barry. 1990. "Goal-Setting, Planning and Organizational Performance: An Experimental Simulation." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 46 (1): 118-134.
54. Spiro, Rosann L. and Barton A. Weitz. 1990. "Adaptive Selling: Conceptualization, Measurement and Nomological Validity." Journal of Marketing Research 27 (February): 61-69.
55. _ and William D. Perreault. 1979. "Influence Use by Industrial Salesmen: Influence Strategy Mixes and Situational Determinants." Journal of Business 52 (July): 435-455.
56. Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E. M. and Hans Baumgartner. 1998. "Assessing Measurement Invariance in Cross-National Consumer Research." Journal of Consumer Research 25 (June): 78-90.
57. Sujan, Harish. 1986. "Smarter Versus Harder: An Exploratory Attributional Analysis of Salespeople's Motivation." Journal of Marketing Research 33 (February): 41-49.
58. _, Barton A. Weitz, and Nirmalya Kumar. 1994. "Learning Orientation, Working Smart, and Effective Selling." Journal of Marketing 58 (July): 39-52.
59. Tubbs, Mark E. 1986. "Goal Setting: A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Empirical Evidence." Journal of Applied Psychology 71 (3): 474-483.
60. Usunier, Jean-Claude. 1996. Marketing Across Cultures, 2d ed. New York: Prentice Hall.
61. Weitz, Barton A., Harish Sujan, and Mita Sujan. 1986. "Knowledge, Motivation, and Adaptive Behavior: A Framework for Improving Selling Effectiveness." Journal of Marketing 50 (October): 174-191.
62. Wood, Robert and Albert Bandura. 1989. "Social Cognitive Theory in Organizational Management." Academy of Management Journal 16 (3): 362-384.
63. _, _, and Trevor C. Bailey. 1990. "Mechanisms Governing Organizational Performance in Complex Decision-Making Environments." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 46 (2): 181-201.
64. Wright, Patrick M. and Michele K. Kacmar. 1994. "Goal Specificity as a Determinant of Goal Commitment and Goal Change." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 59 (2): 242-260.