The future of leadership: Combining vertical and shared leadership to transform knowledge work

Academy of Management Executive

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 47-57

  Pearce, Craig L ^a  

^a CLAREMONT GRADUATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842473099     PISSN: 10795545     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/AME.2004.12690298     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197.
2. See Dumaine, B. Who needs a boss? Fortune, 7 May 1990, 52-60; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1993. Business without bosses. Wiley: New York.
3. See Dumaine, B. Who needs a boss? Fortune, 7 May 1990, 52-60; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1993. Business without bosses. Wiley: New York.
4. See Ford, R. C., Heaton, C. P., & Brown, S. W. 2001. Delivering excellent service: Lessons from the best firms. California Management Review, 44(1): 39-56.
5. For a discussion of innovative approaches to employee relations, see Lawler, E. E., III, & Finegold, D. 2000. Individualizing the organization: Past, present, and future. Organizational Dynamics, 29(1): 1-15; Pfeffer, J., & Veiga, J. F. 1999. Putting people first for organizational success. The Academy of Management Executive, 13(2): 37-48.
6. For a discussion of innovative approaches to employee relations, see Lawler, E. E., III, & Finegold, D. 2000. Individualizing the organization: Past, present, and future. Organizational Dynamics, 29(1): 1-15; Pfeffer, J., & Veiga, J. F. 1999. Putting people first for organizational success. The Academy of Management Executive, 13(2): 37-48.
7. Mohrman, S. A., Cohen, S. G., & Mohrman, A. M., Jr. 1995. Designing team-based organizations: New forms for knowledge work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
8. See Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). 2003. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Avolio, B. J., et al. 1996. Building highly devel-oped teams: Focusing on shared leadership processes, efficacy, trust, and performance, In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3: 173-209. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Keller, N., & Wilderom, C. 1992. What the service world needs now: Lessons from the 1930s to the 1990s. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(2): 45-58; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2000. Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 7: 115-139. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Seers, A. 1996. Better leadership through chemistry: Toward a model of emergent shared team leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership. Vol. 3: 145-172. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
9. See Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). 2003. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Avolio, B. J., et al. 1996. Building highly devel-oped teams: Focusing on shared leadership processes, efficacy, trust, and performance, In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3: 173-209. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Keller, N., & Wilderom, C. 1992. What the service world needs now: Lessons from the 1930s to the 1990s. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(2): 45-58; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2000. Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 7: 115-139. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Seers, A. 1996. Better leadership through chemistry: Toward a model of emergent shared team leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership. Vol. 3: 145-172. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
10. See Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). 2003. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Avolio, B. J., et al. 1996. Building highly devel-oped teams: Focusing on shared leadership processes, efficacy, trust, and performance, In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3: 173-209. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Keller, N., & Wilderom, C. 1992. What the service world needs now: Lessons from the 1930s to the 1990s. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(2): 45-58; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2000. Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 7: 115-139. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Seers, A. 1996. Better leadership through chemistry: Toward a model of emergent shared team leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership. Vol. 3: 145-172. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
11. See Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). 2003. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Avolio, B. J., et al. 1996. Building highly devel-oped teams: Focusing on shared leadership processes, efficacy, trust, and performance, In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3: 173-209. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Keller, N., & Wilderom, C. 1992. What the service world needs now: Lessons from the 1930s to the 1990s. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(2): 45-58; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2000. Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 7: 115-139. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Seers, A. 1996. Better leadership through chemistry: Toward a model of emergent shared team leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership. Vol. 3: 145-172. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
12. See Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (Eds.). 2003. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Avolio, B. J., et al. 1996. Building highly devel-oped teams: Focusing on shared leadership processes, efficacy, trust, and performance, In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 3: 173-209. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Keller, N., & Wilderom, C. 1992. What the service world needs now: Lessons from the 1930s to the 1990s. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(2): 45-58; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2000. Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership, Vol. 7: 115-139. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Seers, A. 1996. Better leadership through chemistry: Toward a model of emergent shared team leadership. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership. Vol. 3: 145-172. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
13. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
14. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
15. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
16. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
17. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
18. See Ensley, M. D., & Pearce, C. L. 2000. Assessing the influence of leadership behaviors on new venture TMT processes and new venture performance. Presented to the 20th Annual Entrepreneurship Research Conference, Babson Park, Massachusetts. June 2000; Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234; OToole, J., Galbraith, J., & Lawler, E. E., III. 2003. The promise and pitfalls of shared leadership: When two (or more) heads are better than one. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 250-267; Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2002. Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2): 172-197; Pearce, C. L., Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. 2004. Leadership, social work and virtual teams: The relative influence of vertical vs. shared leadership in the nonprofit sector. In R. E. Riggio, & S. Smith-Orr (Eds.), Improving leadership in nonprofit organizations: 180-203. San Francisco: Jossey Bass; Shamir, B., & Lapidot, Y. 2003. Shared leadership in the management of group boundaries: A study of expulsions from officers' training courses. In Pearce, & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 235-249.
19. See Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. 1988. The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3): 471-483; Ford, R. C., & Fottler, M. D. 1995. Empowerment: A matter of degree. The Academy of Management Executive, 9(3): 21-32; Kirkman, B. L., & Rosen, B. 1999. Beyond self-management: Antecedents and consequences of team empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 42(1): 58-75.
20. See Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. 1988. The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3): 471-483; Ford, R. C., & Fottler, M. D. 1995. Empowerment: A matter of degree. The Academy of Management Executive, 9(3): 21-32; Kirkman, B. L., & Rosen, B. 1999. Beyond self-management: Antecedents and consequences of team empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 42(1): 58-75.
21. See Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. 1988. The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3): 471-483; Ford, R. C., & Fottler, M. D. 1995. Empowerment: A matter of degree. The Academy of Management Executive, 9(3): 21-32; Kirkman, B. L., & Rosen, B. 1999. Beyond self-management: Antecedents and consequences of team empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 42(1): 58-75.
22. See Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. 1979. Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37: 822-832; Steiner, I. D. 1972. Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press; Steiner, I. D. 1976. Task-performing groups. In J. W. Thibaut & R. C. Carson (Eds.), Contemporary topics in social psychology. 393-422. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
23. See Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. 1979. Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37: 822-832; Steiner, I. D. 1972. Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press; Steiner, I. D. 1976. Task-performing groups. In J. W. Thibaut & R. C. Carson (Eds.), Contemporary topics in social psychology. 393-422. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
24. See Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. 1979. Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37: 822-832; Steiner, I. D. 1972. Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press; Steiner, I. D. 1976. Task-performing groups. In J. W. Thibaut & R. C. Carson (Eds.), Contemporary topics in social psychology: 393-422. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
25. See Cox, J. F., Pearce, C. L., & Perry, M. L. 2003. Toward a model of shared leadership and distributed influence in the innovation process: How shared leadership can enhance new product development team dynamics and effectiveness. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 48-76.
26. I b i d.
27. Leana, C. R. 1985. A partial test of Janis' groupthink model: Effects of group cohesiveness and leader behavior on defective decision making. Journal of Management, 11: 5-17.
28. See Hooker, C., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. 2003. Flow, creativity and shared leadership: Rethinking the motivation and structuring of knowledge work. In Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit., 215-234.
29. For an overview of potential substitutes for leadership, see Kerr, S., & Jermier, J. M. 1978. Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22: 375-403.
30. See Cohen, S. G., Ledford, G. E., Jr., & Spreitzer, G. M. 1996. A predictive model of self-managing work team effectiveness. Human Relations, 49(5): 643-676; Wageman, R. 2001. How leaders foster self-managing team effectiveness: Design choices versus hands-on coaching. Organization Science, 12(5): 559-577.
31. See Cohen, S. G., Ledford, G. E., Jr., & Spreitzer, G. M. 1996. A predictive model of self-managing work team effectiveness. Human Relations, 49(5): 643-676; Wageman, R. 2001. How leaders foster self-managing team effectiveness: Design choices versus hands-on coaching. Organization Science, 12(5): 559-577.
32. See Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. G. 2001. A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2): 292-303; Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Kirk-patrick, S. A. 1998. A longitudinal study of the relation of vision and vision communication to venture growth in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1): 43-54; Kirkpatrick, S. A., Wofford, J. C., & Baum, R. J. 2002. Measuring motive imagery contained in the vision statement. Leadership Quarterly, 13(2): 139-150.
33. See Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. G. 2001. A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2): 292-303; Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Kirk-patrick, S. A. 1998. A longitudinal study of the relation of vision and vision communication to venture growth in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1): 43-54; Kirkpatrick, S. A., Wofford, J. C., & Baum, R. J. 2002. Measuring motive imagery contained in the vision statement. Leadership Quarterly, 13(2): 139-150.
34. See Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. G. 2001. A multidimensional model of venture growth. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2): 292-303; Baum, R. J., Locke, E. A., & Kirk-patrick, S. A. 1998. A longitudinal study of the relation of vision and vision communication to venture growth in entrepreneurial firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1): 43-54; Kirkpatrick, S. A., Wofford, J. C., & Baum, R. J. 2002. Measuring motive imagery contained in the vision statement. Leadership Quarterly, 13(2): 139-150.
35. For a discussion of the effects of group size, see Kerr, N. L. 1989. Illusions of efficacy: The effects of group size on perceived efficacy in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 25: 374-403; Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. 1990. Progress in small group research, In M. R. Rosenzweig, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, Vol 41: 585-634. Polo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.; Markham, S. E., Dansereau, F., & Alutto, J. A. 1982. Group size and absenteeism rates: A longitudinal analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 25: 921-927; Pinto, L. J., & Crow, K. E. 1982. The effects of congregations within the same denomination. Journal of Scientific Study of Religion, 21: 304-316.
36. For a discussion of the effects of group size, see Kerr, N. L. 1989. Illusions of efficacy: The effects of group size on perceived efficacy in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 25: 374-403; Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. 1990. Progress in small group research, In M. R. Rosenzweig, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, Vol 41: 585-634. Polo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.; Markham, S. E., Dansereau, F., & Alutto, J. A. 1982. Group size and absenteeism rates: A longitudinal analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 25: 921-927; Pinto, L. J., & Crow, K. E. 1982. The effects of congregations within the same denomination. Journal of Scientific Study of Religion, 21: 304-316.
37. For a discussion of the effects of group size, see Kerr, N. L. 1989. Illusions of efficacy: The effects of group size on perceived efficacy in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 25: 374-403; Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. 1990. Progress in small group research, In M. R. Rosenzweig, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, Vol 41: 585-634. Polo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.; Markham, S. E., Dansereau, F., & Alutto, J. A. 1982. Group size and absenteeism rates: A longitudinal analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 25: 921-927; Pinto, L. J., & Crow, K. E. 1982. The effects of congregations within the same denomination. Journal of Scientific Study of Religion, 21: 304-316.
38. For a discussion of the effects of group size, see Kerr, N. L. 1989. Illusions of efficacy: The effects of group size on perceived efficacy in social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 25: 374-403; Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. 1990. Progress in small group research, In M. R. Rosenzweig, & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, Vol 41: 585-634. Polo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.; Markham, S. E., Dansereau, F., & Alutto, J. A. 1982. Group size and absenteeism rates: A longitudinal analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 25: 921-927; Pinto, L. J., & Crow, K. E. 1982. The effects of congregations within the same denomination. Journal of Scientific Study of Religion, 21: 304-316.
39. Yetton, P., & Bottger, P. 1983. The relationship among group size, member ability, social decision schemes, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, October: 145-159.
40. For an interesting analysis of the importance of boundary management, see Ancona, D. G., & Caldwell, D. F. 1992. Bridging the boundary: External process and performance in organizational teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37: 527-548; Fisher, K. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Yeatts, D. E., & Hyten, C. 1998. High performing self-managed work teams: A comparison of theory to practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41. For an interesting analysis of the importance of boundary management, see Ancona, D. G., & Caldwell, D. F. 1992. Bridging the boundary: External process and performance in organizational teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37: 527-548; Fisher, K. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Yeatts, D. E., & Hyten, C. 1998. High performing self-managed work teams: A comparison of theory to practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
42. Guinan, P. J., Cooprider, J. G., & Faraj, S. 1998. Enabling R&D team performance during requirements definition: A behavioral versus technical approach. Information Systems Research, 9(2): 101-125.
43. See, for example, McKinney, J. 2001. The perils of being public. Black Enterprise, 31(9): 99-107; Rausenbush, S. Ma Bell gets mauled. Business Week, 15 May 2000: 52-54; Digi International Inc.: CEO's comments sparked heavy trading, firm says. Wall Street Journal, 23 June 1995: A6
44. See, for example, McKinney, J. 2001. The perils of being public. Black Enterprise, 31(9): 99-107; Rausenbush, S. Ma Bell gets mauled. Business Week, 15 May 2000: 52-54; Digi International Inc.: CEO's comments sparked heavy trading, firm says. Wall Street Journal, 23 June 1995: A6
45. See, for example, McKinney, J. 2001. The perils of being public. Black Enterprise, 31(9): 99-107; Rausenbush, S. Ma Bell gets mauled. Business Week, 15 May 2000: 52-54; Digi International Inc.: CEO's comments sparked heavy trading, firm says. Wall Street Journal, 23 June 1995: A6
46. See the recent press release from the American Society for Training & Development on the state of the training and development industry: http://www.astd.org/virtual_community/press_room/pdf/ State_of_the_Industry_Report.pdf
47. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. 1980. Wori redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
48. Pearce & Conger, op. cit.; Pearce & Sims, 2000, op. cit.
49. Pearce & Conger, op. cit.; Pearce & Sims, 2000, op. cit.
50. See Kerr, S. 1975. On the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B. Academy of Management Review, 18: 769-783.
51. See Pearce, J. L. 1987. Why merit pay doesn't work: Implications from organization theory. In D. B. Balkin, & L. R. Gomez-Mejia (Eds.), New perspectives on compensation: 169-178. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
52. ODell, C. 1986. Major findings from people performance and pay. Houston, TX: American Productivity Center.
53. For a discussion of the effects of group-based pay, see O'Bannon, D. P., & Pearce, C. L. 1999. A quasi-experiment of gainsharing in service organizations: Implications for organizational citizenship behavior and pay satisfaction. Journal of Managerial Issues, 11(3): 363-378.
54. Latané, et al., op. cit.
55. For the design of successful 360 degree feedback processes, see Waldman, D. A., Atwater, L. E., & Antonioni, D. 1998. Has 360 degree feedback gone amok? The Academy of Management Executive, 12(2): 86-94; Peiperl, M. A. 2001. Getting 360 feedback right. Harvard Business Review, 79(1): 142-147.
56. For the design of successful 360 degree feedback processes, see Waldman, D. A., Atwater, L. E., & Antonioni, D. 1998. Has 360 degree feedback gone amok? The Academy of Management Executive, 12(2): 86-94; Peiperl, M. A. 2001. Getting 360 feedback right. Harvard Business Review, 79(1): 142-147.
57. See Schneider, B. 1990. Organizational climate and culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
58. See the following for a discussion of change management: Conger, J. A., Spreitzer, G., & Lawler, E. E. (Eds.). 1999. The leader's change handbook. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; Pearce, C. L., & Osmond, C. P. 1996. Metaphors for change: The ALPs model of change management. Organizational Dynamics, 24(3): 23-35.
59. See the following for a discussion of change management: Conger, J. A., Spreitzer, G., & Lawler, E. E. (Eds.). 1999. The leader's change handbook. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; Pearce, C. L., & Osmond, C. P. 1996. Metaphors for change: The ALPs model of change management. Organizational Dynamics, 24(3): 23-35.
60. For a comprehensive review of the literature on leadership, see Bass, B. M. 1990. Bass and Stogdill's handbook of leadership (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press; Yukl, G. P. 1998. Leadership in organizations (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
61. For a comprehensive review of the literature on leadership, see Bass, B. M. 1990. Bass and Stogdill's handbook of leadership (3rd ed.). New York: Free Press; Yukl, G. P. 1998. Leadership in organizations (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
62. Pearce, C. L., et al. 2003. Transactors, transformers and beyond: A multi-method development of a theoretical typology of leadership. Journal of Management Development, 22(4): 273-307.
63. See Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1991. SuperLeadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19 (Winter): 18-35; Schriesheim, C. A., House, R. J., & Kerr, S. 1976. Leader initiating structure: A reconciliation of discrepant research results and some empirical tests. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15: 197-321.
64. See Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1991. SuperLeadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19 (Winter): 18-35; Schriesheim, C. A., House, R. J., & Kerr, S. 1976. Leader initiating structure: A reconciliation of discrepant research results and some empirical tests. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15: 197-321.
65. Guinan, P. J., Cooprider, J. G., & Faraj, S. 1998. Enabling R&D team performance during requirements definition: A behavioral versus technical approach. Information Systems Research, 9(2): 101-125; Henderson, J. C., & Lee, S. 1992. Managing I/S design teams: A control theories perspective. Management Science, 38(6): 757-777.
66. Guinan, P. J., Cooprider, J. G., & Faraj, S. 1998. Enabling R&D team performance during requirements definition: A behavioral versus technical approach. Information Systems Research, 9(2): 101-125; Henderson, J. C., & Lee, S. 1992. Managing I/S design teams: A control theories perspective. Management Science, 38(6): 757-777.
67. Amason, A. C. 1996. Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39(1): 123-148; Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. 1999. Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4): 741-763.
68. Amason, A. C. 1996. Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39(1): 123-148; Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. 1999. Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4): 741-763.
69. Pearce, et al., op. cit.
70. This team was a consulting client of mine who preferred to remain anonymous.
71. Waldman, D., & Atwater, L. 1992. The nature of effective leadership and championing processes at different levels in an R&D hierarchy. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 5: 233-245; Waldman, D., & Bass, B. 1991. Transformational leadership at different phases of the innovation process. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 2: 169-180.
72. Waldman, D., & Atwater, L. 1992. The nature of effective leadership and championing processes at different levels in an R&D hierarchy. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 5: 233-245; Waldman, D., & Bass, B. 1991. Transformational leadership at different phases of the innovation process. Journal of High Technology Management Research, 2: 169-180.
73. Harrington, A. 1999. The best management ideas. Fortune, 104: 152-154. See also Pearce, C. L., & Ensley, M. D. (in press). A reciprocal and longitudinal investigation of the innovation process: The central role of shared vision in product and process innovation teams (PPITs). Journal of Organizational Behavior.
74. Harrington, A. 1999. The best management ideas. Fortune, 104: 152-154. See also Pearce, C. L., & Ensley, M. D. (in press). A reciprocal and longitudinal investigation of the innovation process: The central role of shared vision in product and process innovation teams (PPITs). Journal of Organizational Behavior.
75. See Janz, B. D. 1999. Self-directed teams in IS: Correlates for improved systems development and work outcomes. Information and Management, 35(3): 171-192; Mumford, E. 1993. The ETHICS approach. Communications of the ACM, 36(4).
76. See Janz, B. D. 1999. Self-directed teams in IS: Correlates for improved systems development and work outcomes. Information and Management, 35(3): 171-192; Mumford, E. 1993. The ETHICS approach. Communications of the ACM, 36(4).
77. See Russell, R. F., & Stone, A. G. 2002. A review of servant leadership attributes: Developing a practical model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23(3/4): 145-157.
78. See Pearce, C. L. Perry, M. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2001. Shared leadership: Relationship management to improve NPO effectiveness. In T. D. Connors (Ed.), The nonprofit handbook: Management: 624-641. New York: Wiley; Perry, M. L., Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1999. Empowered selling teams: How shared leadership can contribute to selling team outcomes. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 3: 35-51; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
79. See Pearce, C. L. Perry, M. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2001. Shared leadership: Relationship management to improve NPO effectiveness. In T. D. Connors (Ed.), The nonprofit handbook: Management: 624-641. New York: Wiley; Perry, M. L., Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1999. Empowered selling teams: How shared leadership can contribute to selling team outcomes. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 3: 35-51; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
80. For a discussion on the implementation of self-managing work teams, see the following: Manz, C. C., Keating, D. E., & Donnellon, A. 1990. Preparing for an organizational change to employee self-management: The managerial transition. Organizational Dynamics, 49(2): 15-26; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1993. Business without bosses. New York: John Wiley & Sons; Wageman, R. 1997. Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational Dynamics, 26(1): 49-62.
81. For a discussion on the implementation of self-managing work teams, see the following: Manz, C. C., Keating, D. E., & Donnellon, A. 1990. Preparing for an organizational change to employee self-management: The managerial transition. Organizational Dynamics, 49(2): 15-26; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1993. Business without bosses. New York: John Wiley & Sons; Wageman, R. 1997. Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational Dynamics, 26(1): 49-62.
82. For a discussion on the implementation of self-managing work teams, see the following: Manz, C. C., Keating, D. E., & Donnellon, A. 1990. Preparing for an organizational change to employee self-management: The managerial transition. Organizational Dynamics, 49(2): 15-26; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1993. Business without bosses. New York: John Wiley & Sons; Wageman, R. 1997. Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational Dynamics, 26(1): 49-62.
83. Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
84. See Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2001. The new Superleadership: Leading others to lead themselves. San Francisco: Berrett Koehler; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1991. Super leadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19: 18-35; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.
85. See Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2001. The new Superleadership: Leading others to lead themselves. San Francisco: Berrett Koehler; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1991. Super leadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19: 18-35; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.
86. See Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 2001. The new Superleadership: Leading others to lead themselves. San Francisco: Berrett Koehler; Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P., Jr. 1991. Super leadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19: 18-35; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.
87. See Fisher, E. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.; Perry, et al., op. cit.; Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit.; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
88. See Fisher, E. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.; Perry, et al., op. cit.; Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit.; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
89. See Fisher, E. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.; Perry, et al., op. cit.; Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit.; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
90. See Fisher, E. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.; Perry, et al., op. cit.; Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit.; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
91. See Fisher, E. 1993. Leading self-directed work teams: A guide to developing new team leadership skills. New York: McGraw-Hill; Manz & Sims, 1993, op. cit.; Perry, et al., op. cit.; Pearce & Conger (Eds.), op. cit.; Yeatts & Hyten, op. cit.
92. Aldag, R. J., & Fuller, S. R. 1993. Beyond fiasco: A reappraisal of the groupthink phenomenon and a new model of group decision processes. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3): 533-552; Mohrman, et al., op. cit.
93. Aldag, R. J., & Fuller, S. R. 1993. Beyond fiasco: A reappraisal of the groupthink phenomenon and a new model of group decision processes. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3): 533-552; Mohrman, et al., op. cit.
94. See Hooker & Csikszentmihalyi, op. cit.