Kazakhstan's kin state diaspora: Settlement planning and the Oralman dilemma

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 57, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 327-348

  Diener, Alexander C ^a  

^a PEPPERDINE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIASPORA; KINSHIP; RETURN MIGRATION; SETTLEMENT PLANNING;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; KAZAKHSTAN; WEST ASIA; WORLD;

EID: 18044386768     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130500052005     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. See C. King & N. Melvin, 'Diaspora Politics: Ethnic Linkages, Foreign Policy and Security in Eurasia', International Security, 24, 3, 2000, p. 117.
2. The 1999 Russian population of Kazakhstan was 73% of its 1989 level; the 1999 Ukrainian population was 62.5% of its 1989 level; the 1999 German population was 37.3% of its 1989 level; see Agenstvo Kazakhstan po Statistike, Kratkie itogi perepisi naseleniya 1999 goda v Respublike Kazakhstan (Almaty, 1999), p 11.
3. For a concise discussion of the changing ethnic composition of Kazakhstan's governmental bodies see J. Holm-Hansen, 'Political Integration in Kazakhstan', in P. Kolstoe (ed.), Nation Building and Ethnic Integration in Post Soviet Societies: An Investigation of Latvia and Kazakhstan (Oxford, Westview Press, 1999), pp. 192-211;
4. Zh. Dzhunusova, Respublika Kazakhstan: Prezident (Almaty, Zheti Zhargy, 1996), pp. 80-93;
5. and M. Brill Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for Peace, 2002), pp. 87-127.
6. See A. Diener, 'One Homeland Or Two?: Territorialization of Identity and the Migration Decision of the Mongolian Kazakh Diaspora', doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2003, p. 386.
7. See also A. Diener, 'National Territory and the Reconstruction of History in Kazakhstan', Eurasian Geography and Economics, 43, 8, 2002, pp. 632-650;
8. G.L. Mendikulova, 'Kazakhskaya Diaspora i Respublika Kazakhstan: Problemy i Perspekivy', Kazakhstan Spektr, 1, 3, 1998, pp. 73-78.
9. See Agenstvo Kazakhstan po Statistike, Kratkie itogi ...., p. 11.
10. See Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p. 1;
11. B. Bamishuly, 'Aghaiynyng Aghyldy Atazhurtka ....', Egemen Kazakhstan, 29 July 1992, p. 3;
12. Z. Turysbekov, 'Elinge Kait Aghaiyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 1 October 1998, p. 4;
13. Z. Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar Kshan Atazhurtta Toptasady?!' Kazakh Eli, 19 September 1997, pp. 1-3;
14. O. Omirbek, 'Kosh Kolik ti Bolsyn, Ortamyz Tola Bersin', Egemen Kazakhstan, 16 December 1996, p. 4;
15. Zh. Shaluly, 'Kosh Koshke Uliasty', Kazakh Eli, 20 September 1996, pp. 1-5.
16. The figures 4.1 million and 500,000 come from S. Zhusupov, Immigration Policy in Kazakhstan: Case of Repatriates (Almaty, KISEIF - Kazakhstan Institute of Social and Economic Information and Forecasting, 2000), p. 4. This estimate is debatable not only in terms of numerical accuracy but in terms of the dispersed people's self-conception.
17. For different estimates see G.L. Mendikulova, Istoricheskie Sud'by Kazakhskoi Diaspory: Proiskhozhdenie i Razvitie (Almaty, Ghylym, 1997);
18. B. Seiitbattalov, 'Ush Kazakhtyng Bireui Zhat Zhurtta Zhur', Egemen Kazakhstan, 26 April 2000, p. 8;
19. and S.N. Cummings, 'The Kazakhs: Demographics, Diasporas, and "Return"', in C. King & N. Melvin (eds), Nations Abroad (Boulder, Westview Press, 1998), p. 136.
20. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy .... p. 2. Zhusupov notes that Uzbekistani Kazakhs will soon surpass Mongolian Kazakhs as the most numerous return migrant group.
21. See also S. Zhusupov, Strategiya Migratsionnoi Programmy "Oralman" (Almaty, KISEIF and Open Society Institute, 2001), p. 2.
22. See W. Safran, 'Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return', Diaspora, 1, 1, 199 1, pp. 83-92;
23. R. Munz & R. Ohliger, Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Post-Soviet Successor States in Comparative Perspective (London, Frank Cass, 2003);
24. H. Pilkington, 'Going Home? The Implications of Forced Migration for National Identity Formation in post-Soviet Russia', in K. Koser & H. Lutz (eds), The New Migration in Europe: Social Constructions and Social Realities (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1998), pp. 85-108;
25. H. Pilkington & M. Flynn, 'From "Refugee" to "Repatriate". Russian Repatriation Discourse in the Making', in R. Black & K. Koser (eds), The End of the Refugee Cycle? Refugee Repatriation and Reconstruction (New York, Berghahn Books, 1999), pp. 171-197;
26. H. Pilkington, Migration, Displacement and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia (London, Routledge, 1998);
27. and A. Diener, Homeland Conceptions and Ethnic Integration Among Kazakhstan's Germans and Koreans (The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004).
28. See 'Theoretical and Comparative Context' section below.
29. O. Urimkhanuly, 'Oralmandargha Ortak Mung', Kazakh Eli, 18 February 1998, p. 1;
30. T. Zakenuly, 'Kytaidan Koshuding Kiynshyldghy', Kazakh Eli, 28 February 1997, p. 3;
31. B. Sharip, Zamanai (film made by a Kazakh filmmaker in the independent Republic of Kazakhstan and dedicated to the Year of National Accord and the victims of political repression, 1998);
32. A. Maikatauly, 'Kazakh Kosh Tokyratyp Otyrghan Kimder?', Kazakh Eli, 24 January 1997, pp. 1-3;
33. A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugint taghdyry Kandai?!', Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. 1-4;
34. T. Ramberdi, B. Amalbek, C. Beiisbai, B. Iliyas, T. Ilimzhan, A. Nesipbai & M. Kosymbai, 'Koshi-Kon Maselesi Kongilge Kona ma?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 22 July 1998, p. 5;
35. S. Amiz, 'Aghaiyndar Azamattyk Aludy Angsaidy', Egemen Kazakhstan, 27 April 2001, p. 3;
36. A. Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly Zang Zhobasynda Oralmandar Nege Umyt Kalghan?', Zhas Alash, 4 April 2000, p. 3;
37. B. Bitan, Xosi-Koning Kokeikesti Maselelri', Egemen Kazakhstan, 22 October 1993, p. 3;
38. B. Ilias, 'Oralmandardyng Mungy Bir - Endigi Zherde Olae Omip Taukymetin Birlesip Sheshpekshi', Egemen Kazakhstan, 2 November 2000, p. 6;
39. A. Kalibai, Koshting Kidirgeni - Kongilge Shirkeu Tuskeni', Egemen Kazakhstan, 30 July 1994, p. 4.
40. See Cummings, 'The Kazakhs ....', p. 148.
41. Despite this legal distinction, the author observed that the term has increasingly come to be used in popular discourse as referring to all Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan from outside the state's territory. The term Oralman is generally translated as 'repatriate' by bi-lingual (English/Kazakh) Kazakhstani officials and experts. However, in the interests of restricting the scope of the claims made in this article, the term will be used to refer only to those legally defined as Oralmandar.
42. See King & Melvin, 'Diaspora Politics ...', pp. 108-138.
43. See T. Bauer & F. Zimmermann, 'Network Migration of Ethnic Germans', International Migration Review, 31, 1, 1997, pp. 143-149;
44. B. Dietz & P. Hilkes, Integriert order isoliert?: Zur Situation russlanddeutscher Aussiedler in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Munich, Olzog Verlag, 1994).
45. See Pilkington, 'Going Home ... ?';
46. Pilkington & Flynn, 'From "Refugee" ...';
47. Pilkington, Migration;
48. T. Heleniak, 'Migration of the Russian Diaspora after the Collapse of the USSR', Journal of International Affairs, 57, 2, 2004, pp. 99-117;
49. M. Flynn, 'Returning Home? Approaches to Repatriation and Migrant Resettlement in Post Soviet Russia', in Munz & Ohliger, Diasporas ... ;
50. L. Barrington, E. Herron, & B. Silver, 'The Motherland is Calling: Views of Homeland among the Russians in the Near Abroad', World Politics, 55, 2003, pp. 290-313.
51. H. Kulu & T. Tammaru, 'Ethnic Return Migration from the East and the West: the Case of Estonia in the 1990s,' Europe-Asia Studies, 52, 2, 2000, pp. 349-369.
52. B. G. Williams, 'The Crimean Tatar Exile in Central Asia: A Case Study in Group Destruction and Survival', Central Asian Survey, 17, 2, 1998, pp. 285-317.
53. A. Wilson, 'The Ukrainians; Engaging the Eastern Diaspora', in King & Melvin (eds) Nations Abroad, pp. 103-132.
54. T. Tsuda, Strangers in the Homeland: Japanese Brazilian Return Migration in Transnational Perspective (New York, Columbia University Press, 2003).
55. L. Basch, N. Glick-Schiller & C. Szanton-Blanc, Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Langhorne, Gordon & Breach, 1994).
56. S. Westwood & A. Phizacklea, Transnationalism and the Politics of Belonging (London, Routledge, 2000).
57. L. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1995).
58. V. Mudimbe & S. Engel, Diaspora and Immigration Special Issue, South Atlantic Quarterly, 98, 1-2, 1999.
59. J. Evens-Braziel & A. Mannur, Theorizing Diaspora (Oxford, Blackwell, 2003).
60. U. Bulag, Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998).
61. See also A. Passi, 'Boundaries as Social Processes: Territoriality in the World of Flows', Geopolitics, 3, 1, 1998, pp. 69-88;
62. R. Kaiser, 'Homeland Making and the Territorialization of National Identity', in D. Conversi (ed.), Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World: Walker Connor and the Study of Nationalism (London, Routledge, 2002), pp. 229-247;
63. O. Yiftachel, 'The Homeland and Nationalism', in A. Motyl (ed.), Encyclopedia of Nationalism (London, Academic Press, 2001), pp. 359-383;
64. A. Gupta, & J. Ferguson (eds), Culture, Power, Place (Durham, Duke University Press, 1997);
65. W. Connor, 'The Impact of Homelands on Diasporas', in G. Scheffer (ed.), Modern Diasporas in International Politics (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1986), pp. 16-46.
66. See Safran, 'Diasporas....', pp. 83-92;
67. R. Cohen, Global Diasporas: An Introduction (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1997).
68. The primary places of data collection for this article were Almaty, Astana, Karaganda and Pavlodar in Kazakhstan and Ulaan Baator and Bayan Olgi in Mongolia.
69. With the legitimacy of the ethnic Kazakh regime considered questionable owing to the ethnodemographic parity between Kazakhs and non-Kazakhs in Kazakhstan (Kazakhs represented only 40.1% of the population of Kazakhstan at the time of independence), it is not surprising that an attempt to import recently nationalised diasporic Kazakhs would be enacted. Kazakh language newspapers such as Ana Tili, Egemen Kazakhstan, Kazakh Eli and Kosh disseminated a message of Kazakh cultural rebirth and diasporic 'ingathering'. At times this message was blatant, as in K. Toksanbai, 'Boten Elde Sultan Bolghansha, Oz Elingde Ultan Bol', Egemen Kazakhstan, 25 March 1998, p. 8;
70. Zh. Shaneiuly, 'Atazhurtty Angsap Keldik', Egemen Kazakhstan, 9 May 1995, p. 2;
71. Z. Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar Kshan Atazhurtta Toptasady?!' Kazakh Eli, 19 September 1997, pp. 1-3;
72. and Z. Turysbekov, 'Elinge Kait Aghaiyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 1 October 1998, p. 4.
73. K. Bekeiuly, 'Atameken, Armysyng Dep Keldik Biz Elimizge', Egemen Kazakhstan, 5 January 1995, p. 3.
74. 'Oralmandar Ayyly Whakyrady,' Egemen Kazakhstan', 4 May 2001, p. 3.
75. Gh. Musirep, 'Kalyng Kazakh Karashangyrakka Kashan Oralady', Egemen Kazakhstan, 25 October 2000, p. 8.
76. K. Naimanbaev, 'Bizdyng Tiline - Yltymyzdyng Daralykni - Turyskan Zharkyn Adamlar Attazhurtka Kaitsartingiz', Ana Tili, 22 March 2001, p. 10.
77. K. Shamakaiuly, Kh. Arysbaiuly, A. Akyn & A. Kabidoldauly, 'Uli Kosh Toktamasyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 13 May 1996, p. 5.
78. Toksanbai, 'Boten Elde . . .'. See also citations listed in note 6.
79. Zh. Shapegul, 'Atazhurtka Angsap Zhetken: Agaiyn Nege Prenzhuly?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 29 April 1993, p. 2.
80. B. Sarsembina, 'Oralmandar Ushinshi Sortty Kazakh Siyakty', Zhas Alash, 22 January 2002, p. 3.
81. Zh. Beiisuly, 'Oralmandardyng Aldyn Orys Tili Orady', Zhas Alash, 29 May 2001, p. 2.
82. A. Kanadatuly, 'Suiineringnen Kuiinering Nege Kop?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 23 December 1992, p. 1.
83. Sh. Huandag, 'Kazakhstan - Burhany Oron Bish', Il Tovchoo, 1-10 March 1992, p. 7.
84. H.A. Otgonbayar, Kazakhstand Durversdiin Lager' Heregtei Bolzhee', Il Tovchoo, 10-20 October 1992, pp. 3-4. See also the citations in note 11.
85. Author's interview with Kaldarbek Naimanbaev, Almaty, March 2002. One might, however, note the title of Naimanbaev's article, 'Bizdyng Tiline - Yltymyzdyng Daralykni - Turyskan Zharkyn Adamlar Attazhurtka Kaitsartingiz' (The Uniqueness of Our Nation is Our Language - Come Back to the Homeland Kinsmen) (note 34).
86. Author's interview with Naimanbaev. See also D. Beldeubaiuly, 'Ultimizding Kuiesi - Tilinde', Ana Tili, 22 March 2001, pp. 10-11.
87. Author's interview with Naimanbaev.
88. Examples of the government's stated intent to engage with the Kazakh diaspora include Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 3308, 'On the state programme of support of compatriots abroad', 13 December 1996. The Programme included a series of measures aimed at determining the main socioeconomic, political and cultural problems and outlining perspectives of development of Kazakh communities aboard.
89. B. Dave, 'National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change', Post Soviet Affairs, 12, 1, 1996, pp. 51-72;
90. J. Janabel, 'When National Ambition Conflicts with Reality: Studies on Kazakhstan's Ethnic Relations', Central Asian Survey, 15, 1, 1996, pp. 5-21;
91. A. M. Khazanov, 'The Ethnic Problems of Contemporary Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 14, 2, 1995, pp. 243-264;
92. P. Kolsto, 'Anticipating Demographic Superiority: Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation Building', Europe-Asia Studies 50, 1, 1998, pp. 51-69;
93. Holm-Hansen, 'Political Integration ...', pp. 153-126;
94. D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: the Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1998);
95. Olcott, Kazakhstan pp. 51-86 and 174-189;
96. R. Wolfel, 'North to Astana: Nationalistic Motives for the Movement of the Kazakh(stani) Capital', Nationalities Papers, 30, 3, 2002, pp. 485-505.
97. Ethnic Kazakh demographer Makash Tatimov was among the most outspoken nationalists promoting government policies to enhance the Kazakh demographic position in Kazakhstan; see M. Tatimov, Khalikh Nama: Nemese san men Sana (Almaty, Zhazushi, 1992);
98. M. Tatimov, 'Kanshamiz Kazakh Bilmeimiz?', Ana Tili, 15 March eq1992, pp. 1-3.
99. See Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p.1;
100. See Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p. 1;
101. B. Bamishuly, 'Aghaiynyng Aghyldy Atazhurtka ....', Egemen Kazakhstan, 29 July 1992, p. 3;
102. Z. Turysbekov, 'Elinge Kait Aghaiyn', Egemen Kazakhstan, 1 October 1998, p. 4;
103. Z. Zhaparuly, 'Kazaktar Kshan Atazhurtta Toptasady?!' Kazakh Eli, 19 September 1997, pp. 1-3;
104. O. Omirbek, 'Kosh Kolik ti Bolsyn, Ortamyz Tola Bersin', Egemen Kazakhstan, 16 December 1996, p. 4;
105. Zh. Shaluly, 'Kosh Koshke Uliasty', Kazakh Eli, 20 September 1996, pp. 1-5.
106. K. Naimanbaev, 'Bizdyng Tiline - Yltymyzdyng Daralykni - Turyskan Zharkyn Adamlar Attazhurtka Kaitsartingiz', Ana Tili, 22 March 2001, p. 10.
107. Many Oralmandar, particularly those from Mongolia, came to Kazakhstan under the auspices of labour contracts that assured them of a series of benefits over a period of time - usually five years, see Zhusupov, Strategiya ....
108. The following discussion is derived in part from Zhusupov, Strategiya ..., and has been supplemented by my own research on this topic.
109. Murat Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal for the Legislative Components of the Oralman Project', Daneker Institute, 2001, pp. 3-5.
110. See also Zhusupov, Immigration Policy ..., pp. 5-9.
111. Ibid., pp.15-22,
112. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal ...', pp. 1-2;
113. and Zhusupov, Strategiya ..., pp. 6-8.
114. The term oblast' relates to a provincial scale of territorial administration while akimat represents a local scale.
115. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy ..., pp.15-22;
116. A. Zhaghanova, 'Kosh Konysty Bolsyn Desek...', Egemen Kazakhstan, 30 March 2001, p. 3;
117. 'Shetl Kazakhtarynyng Eng Basty Problemasy Kandai?', Kazakh Eli, 27 July 1998, p.1;
118. and 'Large Group of Repatriates Receives Kazakh Citizenship But Problems Remain Acute', http://www.bureau.kz/articles/review150401d.shtml April 1-8 2001;
119. E.M. Arin, E.M. Abenov & K. Bodaukhanuh, 'Kazakh Diasporasynyng Koshi-kony Uilestiru Zheitteri', Sayasat: Akparattyk-Talbau Blyulletni, 3, 22, 1997, pp.40-47;
120. E.M. Arin, E.M. Abenov, & K. Bodaukhanuli, 'Kazakh Diasporasynyng Koshikony Uilestiru Zheitteri,' Sayasat 3, 23, 1997, pp.75-83.
121. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal ...', p.4.
122. See K. Jastram, & M. Achiron, Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law, UNHCR Website http://www.unhcr.ch/cgibin/ texis/vtx/home/, 2002, pp.76-80. This document declares a repatriate to be a special legal entity, who should have equal rights with the citizens of the state to which he/she returned after having to live aboard against his/her will.
123. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal ...', pp. 4-5.
124. See Zhusupov, Immigration Policy ..., pp. 15-22;
125. Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal ...', pp. 1-2;
126. Zhusupov, Strategiya ..., pp. 6-8;
127. International Organization for Migration (IOM) Newsletter, No.3, Almaty, December 2001, p.2;
128. Arin et al., pp. 40-47; and pp. 75-83;
129. A. Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly Zang Zhobasynda Oralmandar Nege Umyt Kalghan?' Zhas Alash, 4 April 2000, p. 3.
130. Kazakhs in China, Afghanistan and Iran use the Arabic script. Elderly Kazakhs from Mongolia are also familiar with the Arabic script but have largely adapted to Cyrillic.
131. In an attempt to provide a comprehensive piece of legislation pertaining to migration, the Kazakhstani parliament adopted the law 'On Migration of Population' on 13 December 1997. This migration law has a particularly interesting history and, like many issues within the Kazakhstani legislative realm, is bound up with the dichotomy of ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism. According to S. Zhusupov, Strategiya Migratsionnoi Programmy 'Oralman' (Materialy po Strateglicheskornu S"ezdu 30-31 Marta 2001), the law 'On Migration of Population' was the first draft law, in its modern understanding, to be formulated and written in the Kazakh language. It was drawn up against a background of heated discussion pertaining to national language policy, in particular the role of the Kazakh language in law making. The authors of the law were purported to be those seeking to prove that the Kazakh language was suitable for legal purposes, and the migration of diasporic Kazakhs provided a perfect issue through which this case could be made.
132. See Chapter 4, Article 27. A translated version of the law can be found at http://www.iom.kz/eng/docs/migr.php. See also 'Halyktyng Koshi-Kony Turaly', Egemen Kazakhstan, 18 March 1997, p. 3.
133. Zhusupov, Immigration Policy... p.2, indicates that 63,500 Kazakhs arrived in Kazakhstan from Mongolia. This number differs from the Mongolian population statistics which suggest a 17,500 reduction in the Kazakh population. Even considering the high birth rates of Kazakhs in Mongolia this difference is significant. Having explored this issue in both countries, I would tend to give credence to the figure of c.60,000 owing to the likelihood of unreported emigration and the belief among many Mongolian Kazakh scholars that there was an undercount of Kazakhs in the 1989 Mongolian Census.
134. Even Chinese Kazakhs are potentially threatened by the law's definition of Oralman status because of arguments holding them to be 'irredenta' rather than 'diaspora'; see Mendikulova, 'Kazakhskaya diaspora...', pp. 73-78;
135. and G. Nurmoldakyzy, 'OzZherinde Otyrghan Kazakhty "Kazakh Diasporasy" Degenin Kalai Tusinemiz', Zhas Alash, 6 May 2001, p. 1. Western China is considered by many Kazakh elite to be 'Kazakh land' and longtime Kazakh residents of what was formerly known as 'Eastern Turkestan' often aided in the settlement of those fleeing Stalinist repression in the 1920s and 1930s. Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan from Afghanistan and Iran have a much clearer claim to Oralman status.
136. The First World Khuraltai of Kazakhs was held in Kazakhstan in 1992. This gathering of Kazakhs informally acknowledged that Kazakhs in Mongolia retained 'traditional' Kazakh culture and language to a far greater degree than any other Kazakh community in the world (including that of the former Kazakh SSR); see N. Batbayer, 'Bayan Ogh Aimgiin Ardyyd Kazakhstan Ryy Nyyreed Dyysazh Baigaa Yum Gene', Archildal, 40, October 1992, p.100.
137. See Sarsenbaev, 'Proposal ...', pp. 1-3.
138. See T. Douglas, Scapegoat: Transferring Blame (New York, Routledge, 1995);
139. W. E. Gregory, 'Scapegoating', in W. E. Craighead & C. B. Nemeroff (eds), The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavior Science, 3rd edn (New York, Wiley, 2001).
140. See also E. Soja, 'The Political Organization of Space', Washington, DC, Association of American Geographers, Resource Paper No.8, 1971.
141. Although currently not applicable to the Oralmandar, a recent change in naturalisation policy seems to suggest increasing practicality and exclusivity in Kazakhstan's criteria for permanent inmigrants. A new regulation, adopted on 26 November 2003, states that 'all immigrants to Kazakhstan should have and be able to prove that they have a 1,320 monthly numerical calculative index (mesyachnyi raschetnyi pokazatel') or roughly 1,213,080 tenge (ca. $8665) in order to apply for citizenship in Kazakhstan; see M. Pistaev, 'Legko li vernut'sya na Rodinu?', Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 10 February 2004. Such an emphasis on the capacity for migrants to be monetarily self-sustaining emulates similar policies in Canada and other Western states seeking to stem the tide of unwanted labour migrants. The monthly numerical calculative index is used in the Kazakhstani state financial system to set fines, tax payments and other payments. It is a figure that is set semi-annually and at the moment is 919 tenge. It was implemented so that the state could avoid rewriting legislation pertaining to the amounts of fines and other payments during periods of monetary flux (i.e. inflation/ deflation). This requirement is waived for countries with which Kazakhstan has specific migration and naturalisation agreements.
142. See N. Masanov, 'Migratsionnye metamorfozy Kazakhstana', in A. Vyatkin et al., Dvizhenii: Dobrovol'nom i Vynuzhdennom (Moscow, Natalis, 1999), pp.127-152;
143. Nurmoldakyzy, 'Why Do We Call Them ...'. p. 1;
144. K. Bodaukhanuly, '5 Million Kazakh Tanyna Rala Ala Ma?', Zhas Alash, 6 May 2000, p. 3;
145. S. Erghaly, M. Dusebai & K. Toktar, 'Ata Zhurtka Attanghan Uli Koshke Azirmiz be?', Egemen Kazakhstan, 6 May 1992, p. 2;
146. Z. Kinayatuly, 'Kandastar Atazhurtka Kazhet pe?!', Kazakh Eli, 10 July 1998, pp. 1-2;
147. D. Seisenuly, 'Koshi-Kon Maselesi', Egemen Kazakhstan, 13 July 1994, p. 3.
148. It should be noted that Germany has re-thought its 'open door' policy and has initiated programmes to support diasporic Germans in their current places of residence. Discussion of this change of policy and the support process for diasporic Germans can be found in Diener, Homeland Conceptions; L. Rippley, 'New Policy for Germans Returning from Russia to Germany', Heritage Review, 21, 4, 1997, pp. 25-26;
149. G. Krell, H. Nicklas & A. Ostermann, 'Immigration, Asylum, and Anti-Foreigner Violence in Germany', Journal of Peace Research, 33, May 1996, pp. 153 - 170;
150. W. Chandler, 'Integration and Identity in German Politics', in H. Peter Merkl (ed.), The Federal Republic of Germany at Fifty: The End of a Century of Turmoil (New York, New York University Press, 1999), pp. 58-71.
151. Most of the Kazakh 'return migrants' interviewed by the author indicated that they had no intention of returning to their countries of diasporic existence when they accepted the labour contract. The migration was intended to be permanent and the labour contract was simply a means of facilitating the migration.
152. Author's interview with an official from an Oralman support institution, Astana, October 2001.
153. Only 87,768 of the roughly 180,000 Kazakhs migrating to Kazakhstan within the quota system are reported to be capable of working; see Zhusupov, Strategiya..., p. 3.
154. Patriarchal social structures, with aksakals ('white beards' - elder males) occupying the position of power, compelled many families to move to Kazakhstan based on adherence to the wishes of this individual. The tendency for large families among diasporic, Kazakhs also brought many children into the country, thereby increasing the percentage of the Oralman community that was reliant on governmental support. A number of interviews suggested that many Mongolian Kazakhs saw Kazakhstan as maintaining its socialist structure throughout 1991 and 1992. The economic crisis in Mongolia during this period, particularly in the western region, compelled Kazakhs struggling with the new market conditions to seek the social safety net of what they perceived to be a socialist state;
155. see Diener, 'One Homeland ...', pp. 370-399;
156. Zhusupov, Strategiya..., p. 3.
157. Ibid., p.3.
158. See R. Wolfel, 'North to Astana ...', pp. 485-493.
159. A counter-discourse holds that they are harder workers than the typical Kazakhstani Kazakhs but owing to the language barrier are more limited in terms of the tasks they can undertake.
160. Occupations falling into this category included primary-school teachers and medical doctors. A few artists and professors were also able to garner positions within their specialties. The author's interviews with several directors of NGOs and scholars support this statement.
161. See Egemen Kazakhstan, 18 March 1997, p.3.
162. A central principle of the Kazakhstani constitution since 1995 was the denial of dual citizenship; see Holm Hansen, 'Political Integration ...', pp. 175 - 178;
163. and Olcott, Kazakhstan ..., pp. 96-127.
164. As noted above, this is a result of the multi-national character of Kazakhstan's population and the fear that dual citizenship would erode the legitimacy of the state. Suggestions were actually made in the early years of Kazakhstan's independence to build into the constitution a clause providing Kazakh repatriates with automatic citizenship; see A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugim taghdyry Kandai?!', Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. 1-4. This clause was never inserted because of concern that it would be interpreted as an overt attempt to construct a 'nation-state' along ethnic lines. As a result, the Oralmandar have been faced with a complex process of naturalisation since the early stages of the 'return migration'.
165. See K. Otetileiov, 'Azamat Atanu - Ardakty Mindet', Kazakh Eli, 11 July 1997, pp. 2-3.
166. Zhusupov, Strategiya ..., p. 3.
167. See O. Urimkhanuly, 'Nemeremdi Areng Kazakh Kyldym', Zhas Alash, 22 January 2002, p. 3;
168. Zh. Zhanshuakhov, 'Kazakhstan - Kosmekendilerdmg Otany Emec', Zhas Alash, 26 January 2002, p. 1;
169. Otetileiov, 'Azamat Atanu ...', p. 2.
170. Numerous respondents in the author's interviews made reference to the complex process of relinquishing and obtaining citizenship. The bureaucratic problems were characterised by almost all of them as virtually insurmountable. A list of documents needed to obtain housing is provided in 'Oralmandar Otbacy Turghyn Ui Aly Ushin Daiyndaytyn Kuzhattar', Kosh, 18 September 2001, p. 8.
171. Urimkhanuly, 'Oralmandargha ...', p. 1.
172. Seeming to have recognised the likelihood of such a condition, the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan was amended to include a clause (adopted on 15 April 1995) holding that 'foreign individuals and legal entities, as well as persons without citizenship, can acquire the same rights and have the same obligations as prescribed by the civil legislation for Kazakhstani citizens and legal entities, unless specified otherwise'. Such a clause corresponds to international protocols such as those outlined in Jastram & Achiron, Refugee Protection ..., pp. 76- 80. While written into the Civil Code, this special status is not, however, upheld in other legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Clause 115 of Article 1 of the decree adopted by the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan on 22 January 1995 states that a repatriate without citizenship cannot legally participate in any deals involving land.
173. See Bek Kala, 'Zher Turaly ...', p. 3.
174. According to Zhusupov,' Immigration Policy ...', p. 2-4 only 27,044 of the over 180,000 Oralmandar had received citizenship; see also Sarsembina, 'Oralmandar ...', p.3.
175. see also Sarsembina, 'Oralmandar ...', p.3.
176. See P. Finke, 'The Kazaks of Western Mongolia', in I. Svanberg (ed.), Contemporary Kazakhs: Cultural and Social Perspectives (Richmond, Surrey, Curzon Press, 1999), p. 115;
177. Cummings, 'The Kazakhs p. 141;
178. N. Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), p. 109;
179. and I. Bremmer, 'Nazarbayev and the North: State Building and Ethnic Relations in Kazakhstan', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17, 4, 1994 p. 621.
180. See A. Diener, 'Nationalizing Diaspora or Ethicizing Minority?: De- and re- Territorialization of Kazakhs in Mongolia', in preparation.
181. See reprint of speech by President Nazarbaev, Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 23 November 1991, p. 1.
182. Kontseptsyia Formirovanyia Gosudarstvennoi Identichnosti Respubliki Kazakhstan (Almaty, 1996 p. 3.
183. Other locations of diasporic Kazakhs in the 'far abroad' (with the exception of Afghanistan and Iran) have launched far smaller streams of return migrants. Returners from Afghanistan are estimated to be between 10,000 and 20,000 (the. highest estimate of Afghanistani Kazakhs is 30,000; (see Zhusupov, 'Immigration Policy ...', p. 2); 4,800 Iranian Kazakhs are estimated to have migrated to Kazakhstan from an estimated total Iranian Kazakh community in 1993 of 3,000 - 5000 (see Cummings, 'The Kazakhs ,,,', p. 197). Return migrants from China are estimated at 1,100 out of a total Chinese Kazakh population of 1.5 million (see Zhusupov, 'Immigration Policy ...', p. 2 and Cummings, 'The Kazakhs ...', p. 197). Some 2,000 Kazakhs from Turkey are estimated to have migrated, out of a total of c.25,000.
184. See Sharip, Zamanai.
185. A. Maukaruly, 'Kazakh Repatrianttarynyng Bugim taghdyry Kandai?!' Kazakh Eli, 31 January 1997, pp. I - 2.
186. By tapping into an already existing social discourse vilifying russified Kazakhs, the Oralmandar are projected by some to become a force for the more assertive branches of the Kazakh nationalist cause. The term Mankurt derives from Chingiz Aitmatov's categorisation of the sovietised/russified Turkic peoples of Central Asia as Mankurttar. The term Mankurt has become a pejorative term bandied about in Kazakhstan and other Central Asian states by nationalists seeking to reify 'indigenous' culture; see Ch. Aitmatov, The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1988) and Ch. Aitmatov, Plakha (Alma Ata, Zhazushy, 1988).
187. Karakalpak, Afghanistani, Chinese, Iranian, Turkish, and Mongolian Kazakh Oralmandar have each presented requests for such compact settlement. An example is available in a letter from a Mongolian Kazakh parliamentarian to President Nazarbaev dated 28 April 1992, in which a specific request is made for Mongolian Kazakh Oralmandar to live compactly: We, Mongolian Kazakhs want to settle in East Kazakhstan oblast' and in the Aksuat region of Semipalatinsk oblast', because we are comfortable in this setting and the climate is similar to Mongolia. It is also our ancestral land. See C. Karzhoubai, 'Kazakhstan Respublikasynyhg Elteresi Prezidenti Nursultan Abiwuly Nazarbayevka Mongholiyaghy Kazakh Zhurtynyhg Otinish Khat' (Request to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbaev from the Mongolian Kazakh People), 28 April 1992, p. 4.
188. Author's interview with Kazakh Parliamentarian, Astana, October 2001.
189. See Zhaparuly,'Kazaktar...', pp. 1 -3;
190. Toksanbai,' Boten Elde ...', p. 3;
191. Turisbekov, 'Elinge...', p. 4.
192. See Zhusupov, Strategies ..., p. 3. This declaration is clearly a public relations move given that the quota for 2001 remained at 600 families.
193. See Soja, 'The Political Organisation ...';
194. see also Douglas, Scapegoat ... ;
195. Gregory, 'Scapegoating ...'.