Anticipating demographic superiority: Kazakh thinking on integration and nation building

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 50, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 51-69

  Kolst̊, Pål ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASIA; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; CULTURAL BACKGROUND; DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS; DEMOGRAPHY; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; ETHNIC GROUP; KAZAKHSTAN; POLICY; POLITICAL FACTORS; POLITICS; POPULATION; POPULATION AND POPULATION RELATED PHENOMENA; WESTERN ASIA;

ASIA; CULTURAL BACKGROUND; DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; ETHNIC GROUPS; KAZAKHSTAN; POLICY; POLITICAL FACTORS; POPULATION; POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS; WESTERN ASIA;

ASIA; ASIA, WESTERN; CULTURE; DEMOGRAPHY; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; ETHNIC GROUPS; KAZAKHSTAN; POLITICS; POPULATION; POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS; PUBLIC POLICY;

EID: 0031606720     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139808412523     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Pål Kolstø, 'Nation-building in the former Soviet Union'. Journal of Democracy, 7, 1, 1996, pp. 116-132.
2. See e.g. Karl Deutsch & William J. Foltz (eds), Nationbuilding (New York, Atherton, 1963). For a scathing criticism of this view, see Walter Connor, Ethnonationalism. The Quest for Understanding (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994).
3. See e.g. Karl Deutsch & William J. Foltz (eds), Nationbuilding (New York, Atherton, 1963). For a scathing criticism of this view, see Walter Connor, Ethnonationalism. The Quest for Understanding (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994).
4. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York, Macmillan, 1946); Yuriy Slezkine, 'The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
5. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York, Macmillan, 1946); Yuriy Slezkine, 'The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review, 53, 2, 1994, pp. 414-452.
6. When the Soviet passport regime was introduced in 1932, every passport holder was free to state which nationality (s)he belonged to. Later, the element of choice was abandoned.
7. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed. Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
8. This argument follows Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985), pp. 36ff.
9. The non-Kazakh groups which are native to Central Asia, such as Uighurs, Uzbeks, Dungans, etc. are much less Russified, and usually placed in a separate third category as 'the groups of small numbers'. See e.g. A. B. Galiev, E. Babakumarov, Zh. Zhansugurova & A. Peruashev, Mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya v Kazakhstane. Etnicheskii aspekt kadrovoi politiki (Almaty, Institut razvitiya Kazakhstana, 1994). This residual group makes up only approximately 5% of the total population of Kazakhstan (1989 figures) and therefore does not change the basic bipolar structure of Kazakhstani ethno-cultural relations.
10. Norwegian Research Council, Programme for Eastern Europe, Project no. 110191/730. The project included also a Latvian component which is not pertinent to this article.
11. Prior to 1991, terms such as a 'Kazakhstani nation' (natsiya) were not used in Soviet writings on the nationality issue, but are now frequently evoked. See for instance the statement of a group of Kazakh researchers at the semi-official Institute for the Development of Kazakhstan: 'In the field of interethnic relations, the main objective of the present state leadership [in Kazakhstan] is to create the preconditions, in a long-term perspective, for the establishment of a unified Kazakhstani nation'. Galiev et al., p. 19. This and similar formulae in modern Kazakh academic literature seem to reflect a growing exposure to Western literature.
12. In the Soviet period, Russians in Kazakhstan had a poorer command of the language of the titular nation in their republic than had any other Russian group in a Union republic: fewer than 1% claimed fluency in the 1989 census. In a 1995 survey 10% of the Russians in Kazakhstan claimed that they could read a Kazakh text with the help of a dictionary. See Murat Arenov & Sergei Kalmykov, 'Sovremennaya yazykovaya situatsiya v Respublike Kazakhstan (analiz rezul'tatov sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya)', Saiasat, 1995, 1, p. 43.
13. See e.g. Russkoe slovo, 1996, 1, and Vedi, 1996, 5.
14. See e.g. Russkoe slovo, 1996, 1, and Vedi, 1996, 5.
15. An example is Kazakh tribalism today, its characteristics and possible solutions (analytical report) (Almaty, Institute for the Development of Kazakhstan, 1996), which is one of the extremely few Kazakhstani publications on the very sensitive zhuz problem. This report we were able to obtain at the Institute for the Development of Kazakhstan for $20, a prohibitive price for most Kazakhstanians.
16. Sultan Sartaev, in Yeremen Kazakstan, 28 January 1995, cited in Karavan, 3 February 1995.
17. Sultan Sartaev, in Yeremen Kazakstan, 28 January 1995, cited in Karavan, 3 February 1995.
18. Saken Dorzhekov, in Almaty aqshamy, 15 January 1996, cited in Karavan, 19 January 1996.
19. Saken Dorzhekov, in Almaty aqshamy, 15 January 1996, cited in Karavan, 19 January 1996.
20. Professor Kuliash Orazbekov, in Almaty aqshamy, 12 January 1996, cited in Karavan, 19 January 1996.
21. Professor Kuliash Orazbekov, in Almaty aqshamy, 12 January 1996, cited in Karavan, 19 January 1996.
22. Murad Aji in Birlik, 7 March 1996, cited in Karavan, 15 March 1996.
23. Murad Aji in Birlik, 7 March 1996, cited in Karavan, 15 March 1996.
24. David D. Laitin, 'Language and Nationalism in the Post-Soviet Republics'. Post-Soviet Affairs, 12, 1, 1996, pp. 4-24, esp. pp. 13-15.
25. Martha Brill Olcott, The Kazakhs, 2nd edn (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1995).
26. A. Kaidarov, 'Esli ischeznet yazyk ⋯', Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 15 October 1992. Kaidarov is the chairman of the Qazaq tili (the Kazakh language) society.
27. Bhavna Dave, 'National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change', Post-Soviet Affairs, 12, 1, 1996, pp. 51-72. Saulesh Esenova claims that 30% of the Kazakhs speak only Russian. Saulesh Esenova, 'The outflow of Minorities from the post-Soviet state: the case of Kazakhstan', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1996, pp. 691-707, on p. 692.
28. Bhavna Dave, 'National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change', Post-Soviet Affairs, 12, 1, 1996, pp. 51-72. Saulesh Esenova claims that 30% of the Kazakhs speak only Russian. Saulesh Esenova, 'The outflow of Minorities from the post-Soviet state: the case of Kazakhstan', Nationalities Papers, 24, 4, 1996, pp. 691-707, on p. 692.
29. K. Abdenov, in Eremen Qazaqstan, 2 February 1996, cited in Karavan, 9 February 1996.
30. K. Abdenov, in Eremen Qazaqstan, 2 February 1996, cited in Karavan, 9 February 1996.
31. Cited in Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 10 April 1996.
32. U. Shalekenov, in Eremen Qazaqstan, 3 April 1996, cited in Karavan, 12 April 1996.
33. U. Shalekenov, in Eremen Qazaqstan, 3 April 1996, cited in Karavan, 12 April 1996.
34. The writer Bolat Zhetekbai, cited in Karavan, 9 February 1996.
35. Didar Amantai, in Novoe pokolenie, 1996, 33 (August), cited in Karavan, 30 August 1996.
36. Didar Amantai, in Novoe pokolenie, 1996, 33 (August), cited in Karavan, 30 August 1996.
37. Martha Brill Olcott, 'Kazakhstan: a republic of minorities', in Ian Bremmer & Ray Taras (eds), Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 315.
38. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 28 November 1992.
39. See Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the former Soviet republics (London, C. Hurst, 1995), pp. 248-250.
40. V. Moiseev, Rossiiskaya gazeta, 27 August 1993.
41. 'Zakon o grazhdanstve respubliki Kaz̀akhstan', Vedomosti Verkhovnogo Soveta Kazakhskoi SSR, 1991, 52, pp. 81-96.
42. 'Zakon Respubliki Kazakhstan ob immigratsii', Sovety Kazakhstana, 25 August 1992.
43. Sovety Kazakhstana, 13 May 1993.
44. Nursultan Nazarbaey, K obnovlennomu Kazakhstanu - cherez uglublenie reform, obshchenatsional'noe soglasie (Almaty, 'Kazakhstan', 1994), pp. 12-15.
45. Nikolai Ivanov, 'Kazakhstan: sluzhenie khimere', Moskva, 1994, 12, pp. 135-150, on p. 146; and the author's interview with Ivanov in Ust-Kamenogorsk in September 1996.
46. 'Konstitutsiya Respubliki Kazakhstan', Mysl', 1995, 10, pp. 3-22, articles 1, 7, 10 and 11.
47. See e.g. Otkrytoe pis'mo prezidentu respubliki Kazakhstan N. A. Nazarbaevu'. from 1994, not dated, signed by a number of Russian community leaders in the Eastern Kazakhstan region, including M. N. Golovkov and A. P. Shushanikov from Lad, and D. G. Danilevsky from the 'Solidarity' workers movement. Numerous other sources could be cited.
48. The document is unsigned, but the chairperson of the Majilis committee on Foreign Affairs, Zhabaikhan Abdildin, in an interview with the author in September 1996, claimed to be the main architect.
49. OMRI Daily Digest, 24 November 1997: Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 November 1996.
50. OMRI Daily Digest, 24 November 1997: Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 26 November 1996.
51. Author's interview with Mikhail Golovkov in Almaty in September 1996.
52. See e.g. A. Aitaliev, 'Patriotizm. Ideologiya. Kakimi oni dolzhny byt'?', Mysl', 1995, 7, pp. 32-36; and N. Amrekulov, 'Reformatsionnyi potentsial intelligentsii', Mysl', 1995, 7, pp. 67-74. Amrekulov is a bête noire to Kazakh nationalists, and the editors of Mysl' found it necessary to preface his article with the dislaimer that they 'do not share all of his opinions'.
53. See e.g. A. Aitaliev, 'Patriotizm. Ideologiya. Kakimi oni dolzhny byt'?', Mysl', 1995, 7, pp. 32-36; and N. Amrekulov, 'Reformatsionnyi potentsial intelligentsii', Mysl', 1995, 7, pp. 67-74. Amrekulov is a bête noire to Kazakh nationalists, and the editors of Mysl' found it necessary to preface his article with the dislaimer that they 'do not share all of his opinions'.
54. A. K. Kotov, 'Edinoe grazhdanstvo - konstitutsionnaya osnova ravnopraviya v Respublike Kazakhstan', Saiasat, 1995, 3, pp. 21-25.
55. L. T. Tolubaeva & A. L. Syromyatnikov, Lektsii po politologii (Semipalatinsk, Semipalatinskii Tekhnologicheskii Institut, 1993).
56. Author's interview with Syromyatnikov in Semipalatinsk, 21 September 1996. See also N. Ushkov, 'Sobrat' vse knigi by da zazhech'!..', Novoe slovo (Semipalatinsk), 15 July 1994.
57. S. Sabikenov, 'Natsional'nyi i narodnyi suverenitet. V chem ikh razlichie?', Mysl', 1994, 4, pp. 9-11.
58. G. Tanirbergenova, 'Regional'nyi opyt realizatsii vnutrennei politiki', Saiasat, 1995, 5, pp. 50-57.
59. Abdumalik Nysanbaev & Murat Abdirov, 'Zachem nuzhna doroga, esli ona ne vedet k Khramu?', Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 4 January 1996.
60. N. D. Baitenova, 'Mezhetnicheskaya integratsiya v Kazakhstane: sostoyanie i perspektivy', Saiasat, 1995, 3, pp. 27-33.
61. This is particularly true with respect to the rural Kazakhs, while second and third generation urban Kazakhs have a family structure which is more similar to the Russians. This tendency also has the effect of increasing the share of Kazakh speakers among the Kazakhs at the expense of Russophone and bilingual Kazakhs. See Nurbulat Masanov, 'Natsional'no-gosudarstvennoe stroitel'stvo v Kazakhstane; analiz i prognoz', Vestnik Evrazii, 1995, 1, pp. 117-128.
62. O demograficheskoi situatsii v 1995 godu (Almaty, Pravitel'stvo respubliki Kazakhstan, 1996), p. 66.
63. Rasma Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR. The Perspective From Below (Boston, Unwin Hyman, 1986/1989), pp. 77-100.
64. Grey Hodnett, Leadership in the Soviet National Republics (Oakville, Mosaic Press. 1979); Victor Zaslavsky, 'Nationalism and Democratic Transition in Postcommunist Societies', Dœdalus, 121, 2, 1992, pp. 97-121.
65. Grey Hodnett, Leadership in the Soviet National Republics (Oakville, Mosaic Press. 1979); Victor Zaslavsky, 'Nationalism and Democratic Transition in Postcommunist Societies', Dœdalus, 121, 2, 1992, pp. 97-121.
66. Karklins, pp. 78-85.
67. Very often, however, these were Slavs who were not native to the republic but were brought in from Moscow. See e.g. John H. Miller, 'Cadres Policy in Nationality Areas: Recruitment of CPSU First and Second Secretaries in the non-Russian Republics of the USSR', Soviet Studies, 29, 1, 1977, pp. 3-36.
68. Central Asia Quarterly labyrinth, 1, 2, 1994, pp. 3-4.
69. Bhavna Dave, 'A New Parliament Consolidates Presidential Authority', Transition, 2, 6, 1996, pp. 33-37.
70. Boris Giller & Viktor Shatskikh, 'Russkoyazychnye v Kazakhstane: Opredelenie berega', Karavan, 24 December 1993.
71. Galiev et al., p. 43.
72. Azimbai Galiev, 'Etnodemograficheskaya kartina Kazakhstana', Novoe pokolenie, 1996, 15.
73. Tatimov also frequently writes in the Kazakh-language press and here expresses many of the same ideas with a slightly less polished style. In one Kazakh-language article he referred to the Russian immigration to Kazakhstan as 'Russia's demographic aggression'. See quotation in Karavan, 24 March 1995.
74. Natal'ya Loginova, 'Sotsial'no-psikhologicheskaya adaptatsiya russkikh v suverennnom Kazakhstane', Mysl', 1995, 7, pp. 37-42 on p. 41. Loginova is also deputy chairperson of the Kazakhstani state committe on national policies.
75. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
76. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
77. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
78. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
79. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
80. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
81. Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'Kazakhstan's quandary', Journal of Democracy, 6, 3, 1995, pp. 139-154; Ian Bremmer & Cory Welt, 'The trouble with democracy in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, 15, 2, 1996, pp. 179-200; Robert Kaiser & Jeff Chinn, 'Russian-Kazakh Relations in Kazakhstan', Post-Soviet Geography, 36, 5, 1995, pp. 257-273; Kirill Nourzhanov & Amin Saikal, 'The New Kazakhstan; has something gone wrong?'. The World Today, 50, 12, 1994, pp. 225-229. Russian experts are even more gloomy, see e.g. Arkady Dubnov, 'Kazakhstan: The looming threat of an Ethnic Conflict', New Times, January 1995, pp. 40-42. One of the few optimistic articles written in the West in recent years is Neil Melvin, 'Russia and the ethno-politics of Kazakhstan', The World Today, 49, 11, 1993, pp. 208-210. However, in more recent publications even Melvin's guarded optimism has begun to wear thin. See Neil Melvin, Russians Beyond Russia. The Politics of National Identity (London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), pp. 132-133.
82. See Rossiiskaya gazeta, 20 February 1993.
83. To be sure, ethnic and social peace hinges on a number of factors besides demography and political representation, such as economic growth vs. stagnation/contraction, and the degree of economic (in)equality among the various ethnic groups. Few people will deny that the Kazakhstani economy in the 1990s is in dire straits, but according to semi-official Kazakhstani sources 'the fall in the living standard, and the stratification into the rich and the poor have affected all national groups in equal measure. Therefore, no one has any reason to bear a grudge against the other groups'. Murat Arenov, 'Etnosotsial'nye otnosheniya cherez prizmu obshchestvennogo mneniya', Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29 November 1996.
84. Author's interview with Arenov in Almaty, September 1996.
85. CIS Migration Report (1996) (Geneva, IOM International Organization for Migration, 1997). In 1996 ethnic Kazakhs made up 4% of the emigrants and 30% of the immigrants.
86. Author's conversation with Golovkov, September 1996.
87. Aleksandra Dokuchaeva, 'Eshche raz o yazyke, i ne tol'ko o nem ⋯', Vedi respublika Kazakhstan, 1-31 December 1994.
88. Andrei Mikhailov, 'Esche raz o "neobdumannykh pereimenovaniyakh" ulits i gorodov', Karavan, 10 February 1996.
89. Zhanylzhan Dzhunusova, Respublika Kazakhstan: Prezident. Instituty Demokratii (Almaty, Zheti Zhargy, 1996), p. 94.
90. Nurbulat Masanov, 'Reitingovoe golosovanie v Parlamente', in Uregulirovanie etnicheskikh konfliktov v postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh (Moscow, Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1995), pp. 26-28.