Diaspora Politics: Ethnic Linkages, Foreign Policy, and Security in Eurasia

International Security

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 108-138

  King, Charles ^a   Melvin, Neil J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0345910720     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/016228899560257     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. These terms are of course less than ideal. Kin states may not necessarily feel a sense of duty toward co-ethnics abroad, and minorities may resent the label "host state," which implies that they are merely guests in a foreign land.
2. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
3. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
4. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
5. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
6. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
7. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
8. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
9. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
10. See V.P. Gagnon, Jr., "Ethnic Nationalism and International Security: The Case of Serbia," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 130-166; James Fearon, "Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict," in David A. Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds., The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 107-126; Stephen Saideman, "Explaining the International Relations of Secessionist Conflicts: Vulnerability vs. Ethnic Ties," International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), pp. 721-753; Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," in Michael E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 79-101; David Carment and Patrick James, "Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict: Toward a Crisis-Based Assessment of Irredentism," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 39, No. 1 (March 1995), pp. 82-109; David R. Davis, Keith Jaggers, and Will H. Moore, "Ethnicity, Minorities, and International Conflict Patterns," in David W. Carment and Patrick James, eds., Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); Donald Rothchild and Alexander J. Groth, "Pathological Dimensions of Domestic and International Ethnicity," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 110, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 69-82; Ted Robert Gurr, "The Internationalization of Protracted Communal Conflicts since 1945: Which Groups, Where, and How?" in Manus I. Midlarsky, ed., The Internationalization of Communal Strife (London: Routledge, 1992); and Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes, Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1996).
11. The phrase is from David D. Laitin, "Identity in Formation: The Russian-speaking Nationality in the Post-Soviet Diaspora," Archives européenes de sociologie, Vol. 36, No. 2 (1995), pp. 281-316.
12. For an overview and critique of the idea of a "Russian diaspora" as a mobilized source of opposition to local governments, which Anatol Lieven has termed the failure of "the Serbian option" in Russian politics, see Lieven, Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 243-268.
13. Other cases are also significant: Azeris in Azerbaijan and Iran, Uzbeks in Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia, Uighurs in China and their relationship to Muslim Turkic populations in Central Asia, Han Chinese in the Russian Far East, along with eastern Europe and Eurasia's three largest archetypal diasporic peoples, the Jews, Armenians, and Roma. We chose the three cases for three reasons. First, they all involve a newly independent state and its effort to establish ties with a territorially dispersed population whose link to the state is primarily culture, not citizenship. We are interested in examining the relationship between a state and an ethnic group outside that state. There are certainly many other issues at stake in the study of diasporas-where diaspora identities come from, what counts as a genuine diaspora, how diasporas maintain intergenerational solidarity, and so on. Although fascinating, these questions are not the core concern here. Second, these cases represent stranded diasporas, communities that became separated from their newly defined homelands because of changes in international borders. These cases thus provide a kind of blank slate on which states and co-ethnic communities can rework their own conceptions of civic identity, ethnic ties, and state obligations. Third, the states concerned have had varying levels of success in building bridges to, and varying commitment toward, their diasporas. Not all the diaspora policies covered here have been successful, and some have yielded outcomes that their originators perhaps did not intend. Accounting for these divergent developments is one of our goals.
14. On the Russian diaspora, see Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995); Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, and Emil Payin, eds., The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
15. On the Russian diaspora, see Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995); Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, and Emil Payin, eds., The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
16. On the Russian diaspora, see Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995); Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, and Emil Payin, eds., The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
17. On the Russian diaspora, see Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995); Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, and Emil Payin, eds., The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
18. On the Russian diaspora, see Neil Melvin, Russians beyond Russia: The Politics of National Identity (London: Pinter, 1995); Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, and Emil Payin, eds., The New Russian Diaspora: Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); David D. Laitin, Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
19. James N. Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
20. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
21. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
22. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
23. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
24. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
25. For overviews, see Ted Robert Gurr, "Peoples against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 3 (September 1994), pp. 347-377; Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998); Carment and James, The International Politics of Ethnic Conflict; Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); Milton J. Esman and Shibley Telhami, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Brown, Ethnic Conflict and International Security.
26. Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Dimitri C. Constas and Athanasios G. Platias, eds., Diasporas in World Politics: The Greeks in Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Gabriel Sheffer, ed., Modern Diasporas in International Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
27. Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Dimitri C. Constas and Athanasios G. Platias, eds., Diasporas in World Politics: The Greeks in Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Gabriel Sheffer, ed., Modern Diasporas in International Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
28. Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Dimitri C. Constas and Athanasios G. Platias, eds., Diasporas in World Politics: The Greeks in Comparative Perspective (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Gabriel Sheffer, ed., Modern Diasporas in International Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
29. Robert Smith, "De-territorialized Nation Building: Transnational Migrants and the Re-imagination of Political Community by Sending States," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 2-3, 1993.
30. Lowell Barrington, "The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet Successor States," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 47, No. 5 (July 1995), pp. 731-763.
31. See Copenhagen Document on the Human Dimension of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (June 29, 1990); Statement of the United Nations General Assembly on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National, Ethnic, Religious, or Linguistic Minorities (Resolution 47/135, December 18, 1992); and Recommendation 1201 (1993) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.
32. See Copenhagen Document on the Human Dimension of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (June 29, 1990); Statement of the United Nations General Assembly on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National, Ethnic, Religious, or Linguistic Minorities (Resolution 47/135, December 18, 1992); and Recommendation 1201 (1993) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.
33. See Copenhagen Document on the Human Dimension of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (June 29, 1990); Statement of the United Nations General Assembly on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National, Ethnic, Religious, or Linguistic Minorities (Resolution 47/135, December 18, 1992); and Recommendation 1201 (1993) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe.
34. "Treaty of Understanding, Cooperation, and Good Neighborliness between Romania and the Republic of Hungary," Romanian Embassy, Washington, D.C., 1996.
35. The distinction between "state" and "nation" is difficult to conceptualize in English, both because there is no clear set of terms that would distinguish "national" in a state-centered sense from "national" in a cultural sense, and because in the Anglo-American tradition nationality and citizenship have long been seen as coterminous. In most parts of the world, however, "national interest" does not mean what it means in the United States. For attempts to bring some linguistic clarity to this issue, see Walker Connor, "A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a . . . ," in Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 90-117; and Lowell W. Barrington, "'Nation' and 'Nationalism': The Misuse of Key Concepts in Political Science," PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 30, No. 4 (December 1997), pp. 712-716.
36. The distinction between "state" and "nation" is difficult to conceptualize in English, both because there is no clear set of terms that would distinguish "national" in a state-centered sense from "national" in a cultural sense, and because in the Anglo-American tradition nationality and citizenship have long been seen as coterminous. In most parts of the world, however, "national interest" does not mean what it means in the United States. For attempts to bring some linguistic clarity to this issue, see Walker Connor, "A Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic Group, Is a . . . ," in Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 90-117; and Lowell W. Barrington, "'Nation' and 'Nationalism': The Misuse of Key Concepts in Political Science," PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 30, No. 4 (December 1997), pp. 712-716.
37. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 103 (emphasis in original).
38. Strictly speaking, it may be inappropriate to refer to any transborder ethnic group - especially groups that have found themselves "abroad" because of changes in international borders rather than because of migration - as a "diaspora." But our concern here is with the ways in which states attempt to conceptualize transborder ethnic populations as diasporas. Whether these groups are "genuine" diasporas or not is immaterial; how states seek to promote a self-perception as such is our principal interest. For further discussion of the mutability of diaspora consciousness, see Stuart Hall, "Negotiating Caribbean Identities," New Left Review, No. 209 (January-February 1995), pp. 3-14; Paul Gilroy, "There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack": The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Hutchinson, 1987) ; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas. An Introduction (London: UCL Press, 1997), especially p. 21; and James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (August 1994), p. 308.
39. Strictly speaking, it may be inappropriate to refer to any transborder ethnic group - especially groups that have found themselves "abroad" because of changes in international borders rather than because of migration - as a "diaspora." But our concern here is with the ways in which states attempt to conceptualize transborder ethnic populations as diasporas. Whether these groups are "genuine" diasporas or not is immaterial; how states seek to promote a self-perception as such is our principal interest. For further discussion of the mutability of diaspora consciousness, see Stuart Hall, "Negotiating Caribbean Identities," New Left Review, No. 209 (January-February 1995), pp. 3-14; Paul Gilroy, "There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack": The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Hutchinson, 1987) ; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas. An Introduction (London: UCL Press, 1997), especially p. 21; and James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (August 1994), p. 308.
40. Strictly speaking, it may be inappropriate to refer to any transborder ethnic group - especially groups that have found themselves "abroad" because of changes in international borders rather than because of migration - as a "diaspora." But our concern here is with the ways in which states attempt to conceptualize transborder ethnic populations as diasporas. Whether these groups are "genuine" diasporas or not is immaterial; how states seek to promote a self-perception as such is our principal interest. For further discussion of the mutability of diaspora consciousness, see Stuart Hall, "Negotiating Caribbean Identities," New Left Review, No. 209 (January-February 1995), pp. 3-14; Paul Gilroy, "There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack": The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Hutchinson, 1987) ; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas. An Introduction (London: UCL Press, 1997), especially p. 21; and James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (August 1994), p. 308.
41. Strictly speaking, it may be inappropriate to refer to any transborder ethnic group - especially groups that have found themselves "abroad" because of changes in international borders rather than because of migration - as a "diaspora." But our concern here is with the ways in which states attempt to conceptualize transborder ethnic populations as diasporas. Whether these groups are "genuine" diasporas or not is immaterial; how states seek to promote a self-perception as such is our principal interest. For further discussion of the mutability of diaspora consciousness, see Stuart Hall, "Negotiating Caribbean Identities," New Left Review, No. 209 (January-February 1995), pp. 3-14; Paul Gilroy, "There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack": The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Hutchinson, 1987) ; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas. An Introduction (London: UCL Press, 1997), especially p. 21; and James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (August 1994), p. 308.
42. "Dual citizenship" normally allows an individual to vote in national elections, hold a passport, and enjoy all the rights and duties associated with full membership in the political community. "Dual nationality" is a status that normally allows the individual to hold a passport and travel freely to the homeland, but limits the ability to vote or otherwise participate in domestic politic. One trenchant example of this distinction is Mexico's relations with Mexican-Americans. Sam Howe Verhovek, "Torn between Nations, Mexican-Americans Can Have Both," New York Times, April 14, 1998, p. A12.
43. Stephen Van Evera, "Hypotheses on Nationalism and the Causes of War," in Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press/Council on Foreign Relations, 1995), pp. 137-138.
44. Kalevi J. Holsti, The State, War, and the State of War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 127.
45. Alexis Heraclides, "Secessionist Minorities and External Involvement," International Organization, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Summer 1990), pp. 341-378. For further discussion of affective and instrumental determinants, see Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991).
46. Alexis Heraclides, "Secessionist Minorities and External Involvement," International Organization, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Summer 1990), pp. 341-378. For further discussion of affective and instrumental determinants, see Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991).
47. Will H. Moore and David R. Davis, "Transnational Ethnic Ties and Foreign Policy," in Lake and Rothchild, The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, pp. 89-103.
48. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed.
49. Chaim Kaufmann, "Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars," International Security, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Spring 1996), pp. 136-175; and Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, Ethnic Cleansing (New York: St. Martin's, 1996).
50. Chaim Kaufmann, "Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars," International Security, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Spring 1996), pp. 136-175; and Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, Ethnic Cleansing (New York: St. Martin's, 1996).
51. It has become common to assert that Serbia played such a role in 1991, seeking to include ethnic Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina inside a "greater Serbia." The Yugoslav case was far more complicated than this, however; it involved ethnoterritorial claims within the context of a collapsing federation. It plainly was not an instance of aggression across international frontiers.
52. For an excellent overview of the administrative system and its links with ethnic mobilization, see Robert Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994).
53. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 87. See also Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 23-54.
54. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 87. See also Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 23-54.
55. On Soviet nation building, see A.P. Nenarokov, "Iz opyta natsional'no-iazykovoi politiki pervykh let sovetskoi vlasti" [On the conduct of nationalities and language policy in the first years of Soviet power] Istoriia SSSR [History of the USSR], No. 2 (1990), pp. 3-14; M.I. Isaev, Iazykovoe stroitel'stvo v SSSR [Language construction in the USSR] (Moscow: Nauka, 1979); Yuri Slezkine, "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pp. 414-452; and Gerhard Simon, Nationalism and Policy toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991).
56. On Soviet nation building, see A.P. Nenarokov, "Iz opyta natsional'no-iazykovoi politiki pervykh let sovetskoi vlasti" [On the conduct of nationalities and language policy in the first years of Soviet power] Istoriia SSSR [History of the USSR], No. 2 (1990), pp. 3-14; M.I. Isaev, Iazykovoe stroitel'stvo v SSSR [Language construction in the USSR] (Moscow: Nauka, 1979); Yuri Slezkine, "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pp. 414-452; and Gerhard Simon, Nationalism and Policy toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991).
57. On Soviet nation building, see A.P. Nenarokov, "Iz opyta natsional'no-iazykovoi politiki pervykh let sovetskoi vlasti" [On the conduct of nationalities and language policy in the first years of Soviet power] Istoriia SSSR [History of the USSR], No. 2 (1990), pp. 3-14; M.I. Isaev, Iazykovoe stroitel'stvo v SSSR [Language construction in the USSR] (Moscow: Nauka, 1979); Yuri Slezkine, "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pp. 414-452; and Gerhard Simon, Nationalism and Policy toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991).
58. On Soviet nation building, see A.P. Nenarokov, "Iz opyta natsional'no-iazykovoi politiki pervykh let sovetskoi vlasti" [On the conduct of nationalities and language policy in the first years of Soviet power] Istoriia SSSR [History of the USSR], No. 2 (1990), pp. 3-14; M.I. Isaev, Iazykovoe stroitel'stvo v SSSR [Language construction in the USSR] (Moscow: Nauka, 1979); Yuri Slezkine, "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism," Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pp. 414-452; and Gerhard Simon, Nationalism and Policy toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991).
59. This figure is highly dubious, because who counts as a Russian is still very much undecided. The 1999 censuses in some republics are likely to show further important population changes as a result of migration, identity shift, over-and underreporting, and simple census fraud. For an overview of Russian settlement based on the 1989 census, see Chauncy Harris, "The New Russian Minorities: A Statistical Overview," Post-Soviet Geography, Vol. 34, No. 1 (January 1993), pp. 1-27.
60. A graphic representation and discussion of imperial expansion is presented in Allan Chew, An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders, rev. ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1970).
61. We prefer "russified settler communities" to the normal array of terms, such as "russophones," "Russian diaspora," "Russian speakers," or simply "Russians." First, "Russians" in the former Soviet republics are communities composed of a variety of ethnic groups, although Russian language and culture are dominant. Second, the russified communities were not historically organized around ethnicity. In the Russian imperial system, the form and function of the russified communities were primarily political. Ethnic and national identities remain ill-defined among the settlers, and describing these communities as simply "Russian" is both inaccurate and misleading. Third, understanding the potential for political mobilization within the settler communities involves identifying structures that might serve as possible bases for political action. Ethnic identity has not functioned as a political resource, largely because of the multiethnic composition and divided political orientations of the russified settlers. Instead, issues such as threats to Russian language rights or nostalgia for the Soviet system have been the primary impetus for mobilization across ethnic boundaries. Fourth, the use of the term "Russian diaspora" often has a tendentious character. The idea of a Russian diaspora has reflected political interests in Moscow more than demographic realities in the post-Soviet states. Fifth, although the Russian language is clearly a central element in the settler communities, to term these populations "russophone" can be misleading. Language is only one of a number of issues around which settler populations have mobilized. Policies that undermine the economic position of the settlers have also caused significant reaction. Furthermore, in some areas (e.g., Kazakhstan), Russian is the dominant language among the indigenous elite as well as the Slavic/European/Russian populations. To use the label "russified settlers" is not to claim that the right of these communities to reside in the new states is any less than that of the titular populations. Nor is it to deny that some "settler" communities are based on populations that have deep historic roots or, indeed, may be considered indigenous in a region (e.g., Belarus and Ukraine). The term is employed because it captures the political character and functions of these communities within the modern imperial history of Eurasia and the continued relevance of this history for the contemporary period.
62. The comparison of Russians with the imperial elites of other empires can be overdrawn, but for thoughtful and careful comparisons, see Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? The Transformation of the USSR in Comparative Perspective (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
63. Melvin, Russians beyond Russia, p. 10.
64. Constantine Dmitriev, "New Migration Tests Russian Immigration Policy," Transition, June 28, 1996, p. 56. Between 1992 and 1996, an estimated 3 million people migrated to Russia from the non-Russian republics.
65. "Yeltsin Gives New Year Address with Pledge to Stand by Russian Citizens Abroad," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts - Soviet Union (hereafter SWB-SU), January 3, 1994. In a shorter address at the beginning of 1995, Yeltsin again selected the Russians outside Russia for particular mention. See "Yeltsin's New Year Address," SWB-SU, January 3, 1995. In a series of speeches at the beginning of 1994, Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev made clear his conversion to the diaspora cause. "Kozyrev Details Russian Foreign Policy Agenda," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Reports-Soviet Union (hereafter FBIS-SOV), February 10, 1994, pp. 12-14; "Foreign Minister Kozyrev Outlines Parliament's Role in Foreign Policy," SWB-SU, February 5, 1994; and "Kozyrev Warns against Violations of Rights of Russian Minorities in Former USSR," SWB-SU, January 21, 1994.
66. "Yeltsin Gives New Year Address with Pledge to Stand by Russian Citizens Abroad," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts - Soviet Union (hereafter SWB-SU), January 3, 1994. In a shorter address at the beginning of 1995, Yeltsin again selected the Russians outside Russia for particular mention. See "Yeltsin's New Year Address," SWB-SU, January 3, 1995. In a series of speeches at the beginning of 1994, Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev made clear his conversion to the diaspora cause. "Kozyrev Details Russian Foreign Policy Agenda," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Reports-Soviet Union (hereafter FBIS-SOV), February 10, 1994, pp. 12-14; "Foreign Minister Kozyrev Outlines Parliament's Role in Foreign Policy," SWB-SU, February 5, 1994; and "Kozyrev Warns against Violations of Rights of Russian Minorities in Former USSR," SWB-SU, January 21, 1994.
67. "Yeltsin Gives New Year Address with Pledge to Stand by Russian Citizens Abroad," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts - Soviet Union (hereafter SWB-SU), January 3, 1994. In a shorter address at the beginning of 1995, Yeltsin again selected the Russians outside Russia for particular mention. See "Yeltsin's New Year Address," SWB-SU, January 3, 1995. In a series of speeches at the beginning of 1994, Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev made clear his conversion to the diaspora cause. "Kozyrev Details Russian Foreign Policy Agenda," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Reports-Soviet Union (hereafter FBIS-SOV), February 10, 1994, pp. 12-14; "Foreign Minister Kozyrev Outlines Parliament's Role in Foreign Policy," SWB-SU, February 5, 1994; and "Kozyrev Warns against Violations of Rights of Russian Minorities in Former USSR," SWB-SU, January 21, 1994.
68. "Yeltsin Gives New Year Address with Pledge to Stand by Russian Citizens Abroad," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts - Soviet Union (hereafter SWB-SU), January 3, 1994. In a shorter address at the beginning of 1995, Yeltsin again selected the Russians outside Russia for particular mention. See "Yeltsin's New Year Address," SWB-SU, January 3, 1995. In a series of speeches at the beginning of 1994, Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev made clear his conversion to the diaspora cause. "Kozyrev Details Russian Foreign Policy Agenda," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Reports-Soviet Union (hereafter FBIS-SOV), February 10, 1994, pp. 12-14; "Foreign Minister Kozyrev Outlines Parliament's Role in Foreign Policy," SWB-SU, February 5, 1994; and "Kozyrev Warns against Violations of Rights of Russian Minorities in Former USSR," SWB-SU, January 21, 1994.
69. "Yeltsin Gives New Year Address with Pledge to Stand by Russian Citizens Abroad," BBC Summary of World Broadcasts - Soviet Union (hereafter SWB-SU), January 3, 1994. In a shorter address at the beginning of 1995, Yeltsin again selected the Russians outside Russia for particular mention. See "Yeltsin's New Year Address," SWB-SU, January 3, 1995. In a series of speeches at the beginning of 1994, Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev made clear his conversion to the diaspora cause. "Kozyrev Details Russian Foreign Policy Agenda," Foreign Broadcast Information Service Daily Reports-Soviet Union (hereafter FBIS-SOV), February 10, 1994, pp. 12-14; "Foreign Minister Kozyrev Outlines Parliament's Role in Foreign Policy," SWB-SU, February 5, 1994; and "Kozyrev Warns against Violations of Rights of Russian Minorities in Former USSR," SWB-SU, January 21, 1994.
70. Melvin, Russians beyond Russia, p. 21.
71. See, for example, "Russia, Belarus Lecture Balts on Human Rights," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 25, 1996; and "Developments in Russian Policy Signal Intensified Pressure," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, February 12, 1997. Russia also pursued an active policy in relation to the future of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. "Kazakhstan's Language Law Seeks to Equalize Native Language with Russian," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 26, 1996; and "Kazakh Premier under Pressure in Moscow," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 27, 1996, all available at www.jamestown.org/htm/pub-monitor.htm.
72. See, for example, "Russia, Belarus Lecture Balts on Human Rights," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 25, 1996; and "Developments in Russian Policy Signal Intensified Pressure," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, February 12, 1997. Russia also pursued an active policy in relation to the future of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. "Kazakhstan's Language Law Seeks to Equalize Native Language with Russian," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 26, 1996; and "Kazakh Premier under Pressure in Moscow," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 27, 1996, all available at www.jamestown.org/htm/pub-monitor.htm.
73. See, for example, "Russia, Belarus Lecture Balts on Human Rights," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 25, 1996; and "Developments in Russian Policy Signal Intensified Pressure," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, February 12, 1997. Russia also pursued an active policy in relation to the future of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. "Kazakhstan's Language Law Seeks to Equalize Native Language with Russian," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 26, 1996; and "Kazakh Premier under Pressure in Moscow," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 27, 1996, all available at www.jamestown.org/htm/pub-monitor.htm.
74. See, for example, "Russia, Belarus Lecture Balts on Human Rights," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 25, 1996; and "Developments in Russian Policy Signal Intensified Pressure," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, February 12, 1997. Russia also pursued an active policy in relation to the future of the Russian language in Kazakhstan. "Kazakhstan's Language Law Seeks to Equalize Native Language with Russian," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 26, 1996; and "Kazakh Premier under Pressure in Moscow," Jamestown Foundation Monitor, November 27, 1996, all available at www.jamestown.org/htm/pub-monitor.htm.
75. "Russia Cutting Oil Exports through Latvia," New York Times, April 10, 1998, p. A10.
76. Graham Smith and Andrew Wilson, "Rethinking Russia's Post-Soviet Diaspora: The Potential for Political Mobilization in Eastern Ukraine and North-East Estonia," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 49, No. 5 (July 1997), pp. 845-864.
77. As Pål Kolstø notes, there are a variety of "identity trajectories" that Russians might follow, depending on whether culture, language, history, territorial settlement, or other variables are seen as integral to defining "Russianness." Kolstø, "The New Russian Diaspora - An Identity of Its Own? Possible Identity Trajectories for Russians in the Former Soviet Republics," Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 19, No. 3 (July 1996), pp. 609-639.
78. For examples of these terms, see "O voprosakh zashchity prav i interesov rossiiskikh grazhdan za predelami Rossiiskoi Federatsii" [On matters concerning the protection of the rights and interests of Russian citizens outside the Russian Federation], presidential decree, November 1992; "Ob osnovnykh napravleniakh gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov prozhivaiushchikh za rubezhom" [On the basic directions of the state policy of the Russian Federation toward compatriots living abroad], Rossüskaia gazeta [Russian gazette], September 22, 1994; "Deklaratsiia o podderzhke Rossiiskoi Federatsii rossiiskoi diaspory i o pokrovitel'stve rossüskim sootechestvennikam" [Declaration on the support of the Russian Federation for the Russian diaspora and the protection of Russian compatriots], resolution passed by the Duma on
79. For examples of these terms, see "O voprosakh zashchity prav i interesov rossiiskikh grazhdan za predelami Rossiiskoi Federatsii" [On matters concerning the protection of the rights and interests of Russian citizens outside the Russian Federation], presidential decree, November 1992; "Ob osnovnykh napravleniakh gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov prozhivaiushchikh za rubezhom" [On the basic directions of the state policy of the Russian Federation toward compatriots living abroad], Rossüskaia gazeta [Russian gazette], September 22, 1994; "Deklaratsiia o podderzhke Rossiiskoi Federatsii rossiiskoi diaspory i o pokrovitel'stve rossüskim sootechestvennikam" [Declaration on the support of the Russian Federation for the Russian diaspora and the protection of Russian compatriots], resolution passed by the Duma on December 8, 1995; and "O gosudarstvennoi politike v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov v gosudarstvakh-uchastnikakh Sodruzhestva Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv, Latvii, Litvy, Estonii i drugikh stranakh" [On state policy toward compatriots in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States and in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and other countries], draft resolution of the Duma, 1997.
80. For examples of these terms, see "O voprosakh zashchity prav i interesov rossiiskikh grazhdan za predelami Rossiiskoi Federatsii" [On matters concerning the protection of the rights and interests of Russian citizens outside the Russian Federation], presidential decree, November 1992; "Ob osnovnykh napravleniakh gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov prozhivaiushchikh za rubezhom" [On the basic directions of the state policy of the Russian Federation toward compatriots living abroad], Rossüskaia gazeta [Russian gazette], September 22, 1994; "Deklaratsiia o podderzhke Rossiiskoi Federatsii rossiiskoi diaspory i o pokrovitel'stve rossüskim sootechestvennikam" [Declaration on the support of the Russian Federation for the Russian diaspora and the protection of Russian compatriots], resolution passed by the Duma on December 8, 1995; and "O gosudarstvennoi politike v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov v gosudarstvakh-uchastnikakh Sodruzhestva Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv, Latvii, Litvy, Estonii i drugikh stranakh" [On state policy toward compatriots in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States and in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and other countries], draft resolution of the Duma, 1997.
81. For examples of these terms, see "O voprosakh zashchity prav i interesov rossiiskikh grazhdan za predelami Rossiiskoi Federatsii" [On matters concerning the protection of the rights and interests of Russian citizens outside the Russian Federation], presidential decree, November 1992; "Ob osnovnykh napravleniakh gosudarstvennoi politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov prozhivaiushchikh za rubezhom" [On the basic directions of the state policy of the Russian Federation toward compatriots living abroad], Rossüskaia gazeta [Russian gazette], September 22, 1994; "Deklaratsiia o podderzhke Rossiiskoi Federatsii rossiiskoi diaspory i o pokrovitel'stve rossüskim sootechestvennikam" [Declaration on the support of the Russian Federation for the Russian diaspora and the protection of Russian compatriots], resolution passed by the Duma on December 8, 1995; and "O gosudarstvennoi politike v otnoshenii sootechestvennikov v gosudarstvakh-uchastnikakh Sodruzhestva Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv, Latvii, Litvy, Estonii i drugikh stranakh" [On state policy toward compatriots in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States and in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and other countries], draft resolution of the Duma, 1997.
82. The most apocalyptic reading was Leon Aron, "The Russians Are Coming," Policy Review, No. 38 (Fall 1991), pp. 44-49. For a more sober assessment, see John B. Dunlop, "Will a Large-Scale Migration of Russians to the Russian Republic Take Place over the Current Decade?" International Migration Review, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Fall 1993), pp. 605-629.
83. The most apocalyptic reading was Leon Aron, "The Russians Are Coming," Policy Review, No. 38 (Fall 1991), pp. 44-49. For a more sober assessment, see John B. Dunlop, "Will a Large-Scale Migration of Russians to the Russian Republic Take Place over the Current Decade?" International Migration Review, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Fall 1993), pp. 605-629.
84. Statistics in this paragraph are taken from the surveys conducted by the International Organization for Migration, available at http://www.iom.int/iom/Publications/books_studies_ surveys/Russian_Federation.htm (accessed February 16, 1999).
85. Michael Urban, "The Politics of Identity in Russia's Postcommunist Transition: The Nation against Itself," Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 3 (Fall 1994), pp. 733-765.
86. For an overview of these communities, see Ann Lencyk Pawliczko, ed., Ukraine and Ukrainians throughout the World: A Demographic and Sociological Guide to the Homeland and Its Diaspora (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Myron B. Kuropas, The Ukrainian Americans: Roots and Aspirations, 1884-1954 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Orest Subtelny, Ukrainians in North America: An Illustrated History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).
87. For an overview of these communities, see Ann Lencyk Pawliczko, ed., Ukraine and Ukrainians throughout the World: A Demographic and Sociological Guide to the Homeland and Its Diaspora (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Myron B. Kuropas, The Ukrainian Americans: Roots and Aspirations, 1884-1954 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Orest Subtelny, Ukrainians in North America: An Illustrated History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).
88. For an overview of these communities, see Ann Lencyk Pawliczko, ed., Ukraine and Ukrainians throughout the World: A Demographic and Sociological Guide to the Homeland and Its Diaspora (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Myron B. Kuropas, The Ukrainian Americans: Roots and Aspirations, 1884-1954 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991); and Orest Subtelny, Ukrainians in North America: An Illustrated History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).
89. Similar disillusionment affected Armenians, Poles, Latvians, and other postcommunist returnees. See "Eastern Europe's Diasporas," Economist, December 26, 1992, pp. 51-54; and Michael Radu, "Western Diasporas in Post-Communist Transitions," Problems of Post-Communism (May-June 1995), pp. 57-62.
90. Similar disillusionment affected Armenians, Poles, Latvians, and other postcommunist returnees. See "Eastern Europe's Diasporas," Economist, December 26, 1992, pp. 51-54; and Michael Radu, "Western Diasporas in Post-Communist Transitions," Problems of Post-Communism (May-June 1995), pp. 57-62.
91. Andrew Wilson, "The Ukrainians: Engaging the 'Eastern Diaspora,'" in Charles King and Neil J. Melvin, eds., Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998), p. 106.
92. Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 180; and Konstytutsiia Ukrainy [Constitution of Ukraine] (Kiev: Secretariat of the Supreme Council of Ukraine, 1996), p. 7.
93. Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 180; and Konstytutsiia Ukrainy [Constitution of Ukraine] (Kiev: Secretariat of the Supreme Council of Ukraine, 1996), p. 7.
94. On the travails of building a Ukrainian nation and defining the boundaries of "Ukrainianness," see the special section on "Nation Building in Ukraine," Transition, September 6, 1996, pp. 6-17; and Mark von Hagen, "Does Ukraine Have a History?" Slavic Review, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Fall 1995), pp. 658-673.
95. On the travails of building a Ukrainian nation and defining the boundaries of "Ukrainianness," see the special section on "Nation Building in Ukraine," Transition, September 6, 1996, pp. 6-17; and Mark von Hagen, "Does Ukraine Have a History?" Slavic Review, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Fall 1995), pp. 658-673.
96. On this problem, see President Leonid Kuchma's speech before the Second International Forum of Ukrainians, August 21, 1997, reported in FBIS-SOV, September 15, 1997 (electronic version available at wnc.fedworld.gov).
97. Statistics in this paragraph are taken from the surveys conducted by the International Organization for Migration, available at http://www.iom.int/iom/Publications/books_studies_ surveys/Ukraine(1).htm (accessed February 16, 1999).
98. Martha Brill Olcott, "Nation Building and Ethnicity in the Foreign Policies of the New Central Asian States," in Roman Szporluk, ed., National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 209.
99. We use "Kazakh" as an ethnic label and "Kazakhstani" to refer to the institutions and interests of the state of Kazakhstan.
100. Sally N. Cummings, "The Kazakhs: Demographics, Diasporas, and 'Return,'" in King an Melvin, Nations Abroad, p. 137.
101. Ibid., p. 143.
102. Statistics in this paragraph are taken from the surveys conducted by the International Organization for Migration, available at http.//www.iom.int/iom/Publications/books_studies_ surveys/Kazakstan.htm (accessed February 16, 1999).
103. Ian Bremmer, "Nazarbaev and the North: Statebuilding and Ethnic Relations in Kazakhstan," Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (October 1994), pp. 619-635.
104. Cummings, "The Kazakhs," p. 145; and International Organization for Migration statistics.
105. Saulesh Esenova, "The Outflow of Minorities from the Post-Soviet State: The Case of Kazakhstan," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December 1996), pp. 691-707.
106. Pål Kølstø, "Anticipating Demographic Superiority: Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation Building," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 50, No. 1 (January 1998), p. 58.
107. For an overview, see Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996); Milton J. Esman, "Can Foreign Aid Moderate Ethnic Conflict?" Peaceworks, No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997); Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); W. Raymond Duncan and G. Paul Holman, Jr., eds., Ethnic Nationalism and Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); and Thomas S. Szayna, Ethnic Conflict in Central Europe and the Balkans: A Framework and U.S. Policy Options (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994).
108. For an overview, see Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996); Milton J. Esman, "Can Foreign Aid Moderate Ethnic Conflict?" Peaceworks, No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997); Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); W. Raymond Duncan and G. Paul Holman, Jr., eds., Ethnic Nationalism and Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); and Thomas S. Szayna, Ethnic Conflict in Central Europe and the Balkans: A Framework and U.S. Policy Options (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994).
109. For an overview, see Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996); Milton J. Esman, "Can Foreign Aid Moderate Ethnic Conflict?" Peaceworks, No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997); Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); W. Raymond Duncan and G. Paul Holman, Jr., eds., Ethnic Nationalism and Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); and Thomas S. Szayna, Ethnic Conflict in Central Europe and the Balkans: A Framework and U.S. Policy Options (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994).
110. For an overview, see Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996); Milton J. Esman, "Can Foreign Aid Moderate Ethnic Conflict?" Peaceworks, No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997); Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); W. Raymond Duncan and G. Paul Holman, Jr., eds., Ethnic Nationalism and Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); and Thomas S. Szayna, Ethnic Conflict in Central Europe and the Balkans: A Framework and U.S. Policy Options (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994).
111. For an overview, see Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996); Milton J. Esman, "Can Foreign Aid Moderate Ethnic Conflict?" Peaceworks, No. 13 (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997); Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); W. Raymond Duncan and G. Paul Holman, Jr., eds., Ethnic Nationalism and Regional Conflict: The Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); and Thomas S. Szayna, Ethnic Conflict in Central Europe and the Balkans: A Framework and U.S. Policy Options (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1994).
112. Van Evera, "Hypotheses on Nationalism," p. 138.
113. For an overview and incisive critique of such programs, see Thomas Carothers, Assessing Democracy Assistance: The Case of Romania (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1996; and Janine R. Wedel, Collision and Collusion: The Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe, 1989-1998 (New York: St. Martin's 1998).
114. For an overview and incisive critique of such programs, see Thomas Carothers, Assessing Democracy Assistance: The Case of Romania (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1996; and Janine R. Wedel, Collision and Collusion: The Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe, 1989-1998 (New York: St. Martin's 1998).