Ethnic return migration from the east and the west: The case of estonia in the 1990s

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 349-

  Kulu, Hill ^a   Tammaru, Tiit ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC MINORITY; MIGRATION; RETURN MIGRATION;

ESTONIA;

EID: 0034089834     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130050006826     Document Type: Review

References (61)

1. R. King, 'Return Migration: A Neglected Aspect of Population Geography', Area, 10, 3, 1978, p. 175.
2. H. Kulu, 'Eestlaste tagasiränne 1940-1989. Lääne-Siberist pärit eestlaste näitel' (Estonian Return Migration 1940-1989. A Case of West-Siberian Estonians), Publicationes Instituti Geographici Universitatis Helsingiensis, C 9, 1997, p. 16 (with English Summary).
3. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
4. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
5. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
6. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
7. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
8. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
9. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
10. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
11. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
12. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
13. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
14. For greater detail on ethnic return migration, see E. Efrat, 'Geographical Distribution of the Soviet-Jewish New Immigrants in Israel', GeoJournal, 24, 4, 1991, pp. 355-363; M. Vergeti, 'Pontic Greeks from Asia Minor and the Soviet Union: Problems of Integration in Modern Greece', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 382-394; E. Voutira, 'Pontic Greeks Today: Migrants or Refugees?', Journal of Refugee Studies, 4, 4, 1991, pp. 400-420; P. Jones & M. Wild, 'Western Germany's 'Third Wave' of Migrants: The Arrival of the Aussiedler', Geoforum, 23, 1, 1992, pp. 1-11; E. Sik, 'Transylvanian Refugees in Hungary and the Emergence of Policy Networks to Cope with Crisis', Journal of Refugee Studies, 5, 1, 1992, pp. 16-28; D. Vasileva, 'Bulgarian Turkish Emigration and Return', International Migration Review, 26, 2, 1992, pp. 342-352; H. Klüter, 'People of German Descent in CIS States - Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration', GeoJoumal, 31, 4, 1993, pp. 419-434; C. Aktar & N. Ögelman, 'Recent Developments in East-West Migration: Turkey and the Petty Trades', International Migration, 32, 2, 1994, pp. 343-354; J. Bernstein & J. Shuval, 'Occupational Continuity and Change Among Immigrant Physicians from the Former Soviet Union in Israel', International Migration, 33, 1, 1995, pp. 3-29; E. Kyntäjä, 'Ethnic Remigration from the Former Soviet Union to Finland - Patterns of Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Among the Ingrian Finns', Yearbook of Population Research in Finland, 34, 1997, pp. 102-112; K. Iglicka, 'Are they Fellow Countrymen or not? The Migration of Ethnic Poles from Kazakhstan to Poland', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 995-1014; R. Brubaker, 'Migrations of Ethnic Unmixing in the "New Europe" ', International Migration Review, 32, 4, 1998, pp. 1047-1065.
15. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...', p. 146.
16. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...'; H. Kulu, 'Ethnic Return Migration: An Estonian Case', International Migration, 36, 3, 1998, pp. 313-336.
17. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...'; H. Kulu, 'Ethnic Return Migration: An Estonian Case', International Migration, 36, 3, 1998, pp. 313-336.
18. We would like to thank Robert Ostergren for his valuable comments and suggestions. The research was supported by the Estonian Science Foundation (grant no. 697).
19. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...', pp. 234-237.
20. H. Kulu, Eestlased maailmas. Ülevaade arvukusest ja paiknemisest (Tartu, Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 1992), p. 17.
21. O. Kallas, Lutsi Maarahvas (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894); O. Kallas, Kraasna Maarahvas (Helsingi, Soome Kirjanduse Sells, 1903); V. Niilus, 'Leivu rahvas', Eesti Kirjandus, 1935, pp. 365-381; E. Kant, 'Omstridd mark', Svio-Estonica. Årsbok utgiven av Svensk-Estniska samfundet 1944-48, 1948, 8, pp. 5-71; V. Lorents, 'Eestlased Läti NSV Alūksne rajoonis', Tartu, Tartu Ülikool, füüsilise geograafia kateeder, 1971.
22. O. Kallas, Lutsi Maarahvas (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894); O. Kallas, Kraasna Maarahvas (Helsingi, Soome Kirjanduse Sells, 1903); V. Niilus, 'Leivu rahvas', Eesti Kirjandus, 1935, pp. 365-381; E. Kant, 'Omstridd mark', Svio-Estonica. Årsbok utgiven av Svensk-Estniska samfundet 1944-48, 1948, 8, pp. 5-71; V. Lorents, 'Eestlased Läti NSV Alūksne rajoonis', Tartu, Tartu Ülikool, füüsilise geograafia kateeder, 1971.
23. O. Kallas, Lutsi Maarahvas (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894); O. Kallas, Kraasna Maarahvas (Helsingi, Soome Kirjanduse Sells, 1903); V. Niilus, 'Leivu rahvas', Eesti Kirjandus, 1935, pp. 365-381; E. Kant, 'Omstridd mark', Svio-Estonica. Årsbok utgiven av Svensk-Estniska samfundet 1944-48, 1948, 8, pp. 5-71; V. Lorents, 'Eestlased Läti NSV Alūksne rajoonis', Tartu, Tartu Ülikool, füüsilise geograafia kateeder, 1971.
24. O. Kallas, Lutsi Maarahvas (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894); O. Kallas, Kraasna Maarahvas (Helsingi, Soome Kirjanduse Sells, 1903); V. Niilus, 'Leivu rahvas', Eesti Kirjandus, 1935, pp. 365-381; E. Kant, 'Omstridd mark', Svio-Estonica. Årsbok utgiven av Svensk-Estniska samfundet 1944-48, 1948, 8, pp. 5-71; V. Lorents, 'Eestlased Läti NSV Alūksne rajoonis', Tartu, Tartu Ülikool, füüsilise geograafia kateeder, 1971.
25. O. Kallas, Lutsi Maarahvas (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894); O. Kallas, Kraasna Maarahvas (Helsingi, Soome Kirjanduse Sells, 1903); V. Niilus, 'Leivu rahvas', Eesti Kirjandus, 1935, pp. 365-381; E. Kant, 'Omstridd mark', Svio-Estonica. Årsbok utgiven av Svensk-Estniska samfundet 1944-48, 1948, 8, pp. 5-71; V. Lorents, 'Eestlased Läti NSV Alūksne rajoonis', Tartu, Tartu Ülikool, füüsilise geograafia kateeder, 1971.
26. J. Viikberg, 'Vanematest eesti asundustest Siberis', Keel ja Kirjandus, 1988, 5, pp. 284-288. Estonia was a part of the Russian Empire from 1710 to 1917, an independent state from 1918 to 1940, and then occupied by the Soviet Union from 1940 to 1991.
27. K. Pallo, Esimesed Eesti väljarändajad ehk 40 aastat Saamaras (Jurjev, Grenzstein, 1897); J. Meomuttel, Eesti asunikud laialises Wene riigis. Esimene katse sõnumid kõikide Eesti asunduste üle tuua (Jurjev, Postimees, 1900); A. Nigol, Eesti asundused ja asupaigad Wenemaal (Tartu, Postimees, 1918).
28. K. Pallo, Esimesed Eesti väljarändajad ehk 40 aastat Saamaras (Jurjev, Grenzstein, 1897); J. Meomuttel, Eesti asunikud laialises Wene riigis. Esimene katse sõnumid kõikide Eesti asunduste üle tuua (Jurjev, Postimees, 1900); A. Nigol, Eesti asundused ja asupaigad Wenemaal (Tartu, Postimees, 1918).
29. K. Pallo, Esimesed Eesti väljarändajad ehk 40 aastat Saamaras (Jurjev, Grenzstein, 1897); J. Meomuttel, Eesti asunikud laialises Wene riigis. Esimene katse sõnumid kõikide Eesti asunduste üle tuua (Jurjev, Postimees, 1900); A. Nigol, Eesti asundused ja asupaigad Wenemaal (Tartu, Postimees, 1918).
30. W. Zelinsky, 'The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition', The Geographical Review, 61, 2, 1971, p. 236.
31. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
32. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
33. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
34. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
35. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
36. V. Maamägi, Uut elu ehitamas. Eesti vähemusrahvus NSV Liidus (1917-1940) (Tallinn, Eesti Raamat, 1980), pp. 34-35; T. Raun, 'Estonian Emigration within the Russian Empire 1860-1917', Journal of Baltic Studies, 17, 4, 1986, p. 354; K. Katus, 'Eesti demograafiline areng läbi sajandite', Eesti Kõrgkoolidevahetine Demouuringute Keskus, rahvastiku-uuringud, B 9, 1989, p. 12; Kulu, Eestlased ..., p. 22; L. Võime, 'Väljarändamine ja väliseestlased', in S. Ōispuu (ed.), Eesti ajalugu ärkamisajast kuni tänapäevani (Tallinn, Koolibri, 1992), p. 312; R. Raag, 'Virolaiset Viron ulkopuolella', in S. Zetterberg (ed.) Viro. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri (Helsinki, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1995), p. 351.
37. A. Sandluk, 'Eestlased Põhja-Ameerikas. Arv. Asukohad. Seltsid. Asundused. Talud', Meie Tee, 1933, 5, pp. 6-13; O. Laaman, 'Eesti asundused Kanadas', Meie Tee, 1933, 7-8, pp. 108-112; 1933, 9-10, pp. 153-157; 1933, 11-12, pp. 173-177; O. Laamann, 'Eestlased Kanadas enne Esimest maailmasõda', in A. Kurlents (ed.), Eestlased Kanadas. Ajalooline koguteos (Toronto, Kanada Eestlaste Ajaloo Komisjon), pp. 19-62.
38. A. Sandluk, 'Eestlased Põhja-Ameerikas. Arv. Asukohad. Seltsid. Asundused. Talud', Meie Tee, 1933, 5, pp. 6-13; O. Laaman, 'Eesti asundused Kanadas', Meie Tee, 1933, 7-8, pp. 108-112; 1933, 9-10, pp. 153-157; 1933, 11-12, pp. 173-177; O. Laamann, 'Eestlased Kanadas enne Esimest maailmasõda', in A. Kurlents (ed.), Eestlased Kanadas. Ajalooline koguteos (Toronto, Kanada Eestlaste Ajaloo Komisjon), pp. 19-62.
39. A. Sandluk, 'Eestlased Põhja-Ameerikas. Arv. Asukohad. Seltsid. Asundused. Talud', Meie Tee, 1933, 5, pp. 6-13; O. Laaman, 'Eesti asundused Kanadas', Meie Tee, 1933, 7-8, pp. 108-112; 1933, 9-10, pp. 153-157; 1933, 11-12, pp. 173-177; O. Laamann, 'Eestlased Kanadas enne Esimest maailmasõda', in A. Kurlents (ed.), Eestlased Kanadas. Ajalooline koguteos (Toronto, Kanada Eestlaste Ajaloo Komisjon), pp. 19-62.
40. Kulu, Eestlased ..., pp. 73-74.
41. R. Ise, 'Eestlaste elu Lõuna-Ameerikas', Välis-Eesti Almanak, 1934, 5, pp. 4-9.
42. Cf. Kulu, Eestlased ..., pp. 76-77.
43. Ibid., pp. 77, 82.
44. T. Parming, 'Population Changes in Estonia, 1935-1970', Population Studies, 26, 1, 1972, pp. 54-56.
45. Kulu, Eestlased ..., pp. 80-121.
46. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...', pp. 146.
47. Kulu, Eestlasted ..., p. 52. In addition, there were 3312 Estonians living in Latvia and 598 in Lithuania in 1989 (Ibid., p. 133).
48. Kulu, Eestlasted ..., p. 52. In addition, there were 3312 Estonians living in Latvia and 598 in Lithuania in 1989 (Ibid., p. 133).
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.; for greater detail see also H. Kulu, 'The Estonian Diaspora', Trames, 1, 3, 1997, pp. 277-286.
51. Ibid.; for greater detail see also H. Kulu, 'The Estonian Diaspora', Trames, 1, 3, 1997, pp. 277-286.
52. Örjan Sjöberg & Tiit Tammaru, 'Transitional Statistics: Internal Migration and Urban Growth in Post-Soviet Estonia', Europe-Asia Studies, 51, 5, 1999, pp. 821-842.
53. National Computing Centre (NCC), individual data on 1156 Estonian return migrants (Tallinn, National Computing Centre, 1997). We apply the concept 'return migrants from the East' to the diaspora Estonians who have returned to Estonia from the CIS and the other Baltic States, and the concept 'return migrants from the West' to the diaspora Estonians from Western countries. The distinction between the two diaspora Estonian communities has been made because of the differences in the formation and history of those communities, as a result of which the background to their return migration also differs.
54. Estonian Citizenship and Migration Board (CMB), data on 1384 Estonian return migrants (Tallinn, Estonian Citizenship and Migration Board, Department of Remigration, 1996).
55. However, unlike the CMB database, the NCC database does not include information on 467 Estonian refugees from Abkhazia, a majority of whom were evacuated by the Estonian government to Estonia in 1992. But this group of evacuated Estonians is not studied in the article.
56. CMB; NCC; cf. Kulu, 'Eestlaste ...', pp. 145-146. The data provided here on return migrants before the 1990s include only the descendants of those who emigrated to Russia at the turn of the century, as there are no reliable sources on the return migration of those who left Estonia during the post-war period and their descendants. It is only known that their return migration streams have not been significant. Likewise, the return of those mobilised and evacuated during World War II, as well as those deported and repressed, has not been studied here.
57. CMB; NCC.
58. He migration probability/selectivity per 1000 was calculated as follows: p = M/P * 1000, where p is the return migration probability per 1000 in the period under observation, M is the number of return migrants in the observed period, and P is the size of the diaspora Estonian population at the beginning of the period.
59. In the following analyses Estonians who have returned from Finland have been left out, as it is known beforehand that the majority of the return migrants from Finland are made up of those who left Estonia at the beginning of the 1990s.
60. The following results are based on the survey data (Centre for Estonian Disapora Studies (CEDS). The survey was carried out among 106 Estonian return migrants by Tartu University, Centre for Estonian Diaspora Studies, 1997.
61. T. Vihalemm, 'Vene elanikkonna eesti keele oskus, kasutamine ja hoiakud selle omandamise suhtes 1990-95', in P. Järve (ed.), Vene noored Eestis: sotsioloogiline mosaiik (Tallinn, Avita, 1997), p. 247.