Hierarchy, Balancing, and Empirical Puzzles in Asian International Relations

International Security

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 165-180

  Kang, David C ^a  

^a DARTMOUTH COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1642587100     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/016228803773100110     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. David C. Kang, "Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytic Frameworks," International Security, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Summer 2003), pp. 57-85.
2. Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925-1975 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982).
3. For an overview of the intellectual development of the field, see Stephan Haggard, "Institutions and Growth in East Asia," Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Spring 2004), p. 4. For empirical assessments, see Richard Luedde-Neurath, Import Controls and Export-Oriented Development: A Reassessment of the South Korean Case (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1986); and Russell Mardon, "The State and the Effective Control of Foreign Capital: The Case of South Korea," World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 1 (October 1990), pp. 111-138.
4. For an overview of the intellectual development of the field, see Stephan Haggard, "Institutions and Growth in East Asia," Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Spring 2004), p. 4. For empirical assessments, see Richard Luedde-Neurath, Import Controls and Export-Oriented Development: A Reassessment of the South Korean Case (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1986); and Russell Mardon, "The State and the Effective Control of Foreign Capital: The Case of South Korea," World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 1 (October 1990), pp. 111-138.
5. For an overview of the intellectual development of the field, see Stephan Haggard, "Institutions and Growth in East Asia," Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Spring 2004), p. 4. For empirical assessments, see Richard Luedde-Neurath, Import Controls and Export-Oriented Development: A Reassessment of the South Korean Case (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1986); and Russell Mardon, "The State and the Effective Control of Foreign Capital: The Case of South Korea," World Politics, Vol. 43, No. 1 (October 1990), pp. 111-138.
6. Robert Wade, "East Asia's Economic Success: Conflicting Perspectives, Partial Insights, Shaky Evidence," World Politics, Vol. 44, No. 2 (January 1992), pp. 270-320.
7. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
8. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
9. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
10. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
11. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
12. For economic perspectives, see Alwyn Young, "The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110, No. 3 (August 1995), pp. 641-680; Paul Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 6 (November/December 1994), pp. 62-79; and Helen Hughes, ed., Achieving Industrialization in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). For discussions of statists, see Robert Wade, Governing the Market (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990); Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); and Stephan Haggard, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing States (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
13. Meredith Woo-Cumings, ed., The Developmental State (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999); and David C. Kang, "Bad Loans to Good Friends: Money Politics and the Developmental State in Korea," International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 177-207.
14. Meredith Woo-Cumings, ed., The Developmental State (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999); and David C. Kang, "Bad Loans to Good Friends: Money Politics and the Developmental State in Korea," International Organization, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 177-207.
15. Dani Rodrik, "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy, No. 20 (April 1995), pp. 141-193; Masahiko Aoki, Information, Incentives, and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Joseph E. Stiglitz and Marylou Uy, "Financial Markets, Public Policy, and the East Asian Miracle," World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 11, No. 2 (November 1996), pp. 249-276; and World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
16. Dani Rodrik, "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy, No. 20 (April 1995), pp. 141-193; Masahiko Aoki, Information, Incentives, and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Joseph E. Stiglitz and Marylou Uy, "Financial Markets, Public Policy, and the East Asian Miracle," World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 11, No. 2 (November 1996), pp. 249-276; and World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
17. Dani Rodrik, "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy, No. 20 (April 1995), pp. 141-193; Masahiko Aoki, Information, Incentives, and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Joseph E. Stiglitz and Marylou Uy, "Financial Markets, Public Policy, and the East Asian Miracle," World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 11, No. 2 (November 1996), pp. 249-276; and World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
18. Dani Rodrik, "Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich," Economic Policy, No. 20 (April 1995), pp. 141-193; Masahiko Aoki, Information, Incentives, and Bargaining in the Japanese Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Joseph E. Stiglitz and Marylou Uy, "Financial Markets, Public Policy, and the East Asian Miracle," World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 11, No. 2 (November 1996), pp. 249-276; and World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
19. David C. Kang, "Transaction Costs and Crony Capitalism in East Asia," Comparative Politics, Vol. 35, No. 4 (July 2003), pp. 439-459; Andrew MacIntyre, "Institutions and Investors: The Politics of the Economic Crisis in Southeast Asia," International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Winter 2001), pp. 81-122; and Michael Ross, "Indonesia's Puzzling Crisis," University of California at Los Angeles, 2003.
20. David C. Kang, "Transaction Costs and Crony Capitalism in East Asia," Comparative Politics, Vol. 35, No. 4 (July 2003), pp. 439-459; Andrew MacIntyre, "Institutions and Investors: The Politics of the Economic Crisis in Southeast Asia," International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Winter 2001), pp. 81-122; and Michael Ross, "Indonesia's Puzzling Crisis," University of California at Los Angeles, 2003.
21. David C. Kang, "Transaction Costs and Crony Capitalism in East Asia," Comparative Politics, Vol. 35, No. 4 (July 2003), pp. 439-459; Andrew MacIntyre, "Institutions and Investors: The Politics of the Economic Crisis in Southeast Asia," International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Winter 2001), pp. 81-122; and Michael Ross, "Indonesia's Puzzling Crisis," University of California at Los Angeles, 2003.
22. David C. Kang, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Richard Doner, Bryan Ritchie, and Daniel Slater, "System Vulnerability and the Origins of Developmental States: Northeast and Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective," Emory University, 2003; and Mushtaq H. Khan and K.S. Jomo, Rents, Rent-seeking, and Economic Development: Theory and Evidence in Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
23. David C. Kang, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Richard Doner, Bryan Ritchie, and Daniel Slater, "System Vulnerability and the Origins of Developmental States: Northeast and Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective," Emory University, 2003; and Mushtaq H. Khan and K.S. Jomo, Rents, Rent-seeking, and Economic Development: Theory and Evidence in Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
24. David C. Kang, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Richard Doner, Bryan Ritchie, and Daniel Slater, "System Vulnerability and the Origins of Developmental States: Northeast and Southeast Asia in Comparative Perspective," Emory University, 2003; and Mushtaq H. Khan and K.S. Jomo, Rents, Rent-seeking, and Economic Development: Theory and Evidence in Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
25. Haggard, "Institutions and Growth in East Asia," p. 14.
26. One such controversy is over total factory productivity. See Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle"; and Dani Rodrik, "Coordination Failures and Government Policy: A Model with Applications to East Asia and Eastern Europe," Journal of International Economics, Vol. 40, Nos. 1-2 (February 1996), pp. 1-22.
27. One such controversy is over total factory productivity. See Krugman, "The Myth of Asia's Miracle"; and Dani Rodrik, "Coordination Failures and Government Policy: A Model with Applications to East Asia and Eastern Europe," Journal of International Economics, Vol. 40, Nos. 1-2 (February 1996), pp. 1-22.
28. Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Summer 1994), pp. 72-107; Robert Powell, In the Shadow of Power: States and Strategies in International Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999); and Charles L. Glaser, "The Security Dilemma Revisited," World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 1 (October 1997), pp. 171-210.
29. Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Summer 1994), pp. 72-107; Robert Powell, In the Shadow of Power: States and Strategies in International Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999); and Charles L. Glaser, "The Security Dilemma Revisited," World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 1 (October 1997), pp. 171-210.
30. Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Summer 1994), pp. 72-107; Robert Powell, In the Shadow of Power: States and Strategies in International Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999); and Charles L. Glaser, "The Security Dilemma Revisited," World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 1 (October 1997), pp. 171-210.
31. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
32. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
33. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
34. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
35. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
36. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
37. On hegemonic stability, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); and David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of United States Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988). On preponderance of power, see A.F.K. Organski and Jacek Kugler, The War Ledger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Douglas Lemke, Regions of War and Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Henk Houweling and Jan Siccama, "Power Transitions as a Cause of War," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 32, No. 1 (March 1988), pp. 87-102; and Douglas Lemke and Suzanne Werner, "Power Parity, Commitment to Change, and War," International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (June 1996), pp. 235-260.
38. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 5; William C. Wohlforth, "The Stability of a Unipolar World," International Security, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Summer 1999), pp. 5-42; and Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
39. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 5; William C. Wohlforth, "The Stability of a Unipolar World," International Security, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Summer 1999), pp. 5-42; and Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
40. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 5; William C. Wohlforth, "The Stability of a Unipolar World," International Security, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Summer 1999), pp. 5-42; and Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
41. Powell, In the Shadow of Power, pp. 6, 201.
42. Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Emerging Structure of International Politics," International Security, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Fall 1993), p. 77.
43. William C. Wohlforth and Stuart Kaufman, "Hierarchy and Balance in International Systems," paper prepared for the conference "Hierarchy and Balance in Ancient Systems," Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, October 19-21, 2003, p. 2.
44. "Hierarchy and Balance in Ancient Systems," conference held at Dartmouth College, October 19-21, 2003.
45. Wohlforth and Kaufman, "Hierarchy and Balance in International Systems," p. 11.
46. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
47. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
48. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
49. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
50. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
51. See William C. Wohlforth, "Hierarchy, Status, and War," paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston, Massachusetts, August 29-September 1, 2002; David A. Lake, "Anarchy, Hierarchy, and the Variety of International Relations," International Organization, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Winter 1996), pp. 1-33; and Katja Weber, Hierarchy amidst Anarchy: Transaction Costs and Institutional Choice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). The British School has been most active in exploring alternative forms of organization. See Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (New York: Routledge, 1992); Evan Luard, Conflict and Peace in the Modern International System: A Study of the Principles of International Order (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988); and Barry Buzan and Richard Little, "The Idea of 'International System': Theory Meets History," International Political Science Review, Vol. 15 (July 1994), pp. 231-255.
52. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979), p. 73.
53. Ibid., p. 127.
54. Wohlforth, "The Stability of a Unipolar World."
55. A challenge for international relations scholars is to define more clearly our basic theoretical concepts, such as bandwagoning, balancing, engagement, containment, hegemony, accommodation, hiding, and hedging.
56. On balancing, see Waltz, Theory of International Politics; Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987); and Eric Labs, "Do Weak States Bandwagon?" Security Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1992), pp. 41-61.
57. On balancing, see Waltz, Theory of International Politics; Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987); and Eric Labs, "Do Weak States Bandwagon?" Security Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1992), pp. 41-61.
58. On balancing, see Waltz, Theory of International Politics; Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987); and Eric Labs, "Do Weak States Bandwagon?" Security Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1992), pp. 41-61.
59. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit."
60. According to Waltz, "State actions are not determined by structure. . . . Because states coexist in a self-help system, they are free to do any fool thing they care to, but they are likely to be rewarded for behavior that is responsive to structural pressures and punished for behavior that is not." Waltz, "Evaluating Theories," American Political Science Review, Vol. 91, No. 4 (December 1997), p. 915.
61. Powell, In the Shadow of Power; James D. Fearon, "Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Theories of International Relations," Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Fall 1998), pp. 289-314; and Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
62. Powell, In the Shadow of Power; James D. Fearon, "Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Theories of International Relations," Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Fall 1998), pp. 289-314; and Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
63. Powell, In the Shadow of Power; James D. Fearon, "Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Theories of International Relations," Annual Review of Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Fall 1998), pp. 289-314; and Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and David Lalman, War and Reason: Domestic and International Imperatives (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
64. Stephan Haggard, "The Balance of Power, Globalization, and Democracy in Northeast Asia: Reflections on Long-Run Forces," paper presented at the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia," Seoul, South Korea, September 2-3, 2003, p. 60.
65. This section is drawn from David C. Kang, "Hierarchy in Asian International Relations: 1300-1900," paper prepared for the conference "Hierarchy and Balancing in Ancient Systems."
66. Among many books on historical European international relations, see Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994); Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1951); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
67. Among many books on historical European international relations, see Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994); Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1951); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
68. Among many books on historical European international relations, see Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994); Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1951); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
69. Among many books on historical European international relations, see Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994); Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1951); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
70. Among many books on historical European international relations, see Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994); Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974); Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1951); and Elizabeth Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
71. These are lain Alastair Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), and John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968). A third will be Victoria Hui, War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
72. These are lain Alastair Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), and John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968). A third will be Victoria Hui, War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
73. These are lain Alastair Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), and John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968). A third will be Victoria Hui, War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
74. Fairbank, The Chinese World Order.
75. Much of this literature is cited in my book-length manuscript. David C. Kang, "Hierarchy, Alliances, and Stability in Asia," Dartmouth College, 2003.
76. David Marr, "Sino-Vietnamese Relations," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 6 (July 1981), p. 49.
77. Kawazoe Shoji, "Japan and East Asia," in Kozo Yamamura, ed, The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan, 3d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 437.
78. Key-hiuk Kim, The Last Phase of the East Asian World Order: Korea, Japan, and the Chinese Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 21, 23.
79. See Jeremiah Curtin, The Mongols: A History (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972).
80. Johnston, Cultural Realism, p. 234. See also Hans J. van de Yen, "War and the Making of Modern China," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4 (October 1996), p. 737.
81. Johnston, Cultural Realism, p. 234. See also Hans J. van de Yen, "War and the Making of Modern China," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4 (October 1996), p. 737.
82. D. Scott Bennett and Allan Stam, The Behavioral Origins of War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003), pp. 191-195.
83. Thomas J. Christensen, "China, the U.S.-Japan Alliance, and the Security Dilemma in East Asia," International Security, Vol. 23 No. 4 (Spring 1999), pp. 49-79.
84. Jack L. Snyder and Robert Jervis, eds., Coping with Complexity in the International System (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993).
85. Bennett and Stam, The Behavioral Origins of War, p. 174.
86. Aihwa Ong, "The Chinese Axis: Zoning Technologies and the Logic of Exception in Variegated Sovereignty," paper prepared for the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia"; and Andreas Osiander, "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth," International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Winter 2001), pp. 251-287.
87. Aihwa Ong, "The Chinese Axis: Zoning Technologies and the Logic of Exception in Variegated Sovereignty," paper prepared for the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia"; and Andreas Osiander, "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth," International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Winter 2001), pp. 251-287.
88. Personal communication from Peter Katzenstein, September 29, 2003. See also Yun-han Chu, "Taiwan's Security Dilemma: Military Rivalry, Economic Dependence, and the Struggle over National Identity," paper prepared for the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia."
89. Shelley Rigger, "Competing Conceptions of Taiwan's Identity," in Suisheng Zhao, ed., Across the Taiwan Strait: Mainland China, Taiwan, and the 1995-1996 Crisis (New York: Routledge, 1997); Christopher Hughes, Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Gary Klintworth, New Taiwan, New China: Taiwan's Changing Role in the Asia-Pacific Region (New York: St. Martin's, 1995).
90. Shelley Rigger, "Competing Conceptions of Taiwan's Identity," in Suisheng Zhao, ed., Across the Taiwan Strait: Mainland China, Taiwan, and the 1995-1996 Crisis (New York: Routledge, 1997); Christopher Hughes, Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Gary Klintworth, New Taiwan, New China: Taiwan's Changing Role in the Asia-Pacific Region (New York: St. Martin's, 1995).
91. Shelley Rigger, "Competing Conceptions of Taiwan's Identity," in Suisheng Zhao, ed., Across the Taiwan Strait: Mainland China, Taiwan, and the 1995-1996 Crisis (New York: Routledge, 1997); Christopher Hughes, Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Gary Klintworth, New Taiwan, New China: Taiwan's Changing Role in the Asia-Pacific Region (New York: St. Martin's, 1995).
92. On North Korean economic reforms, see David C. Kang, "The Avoidable Crisis in North Korea," Orbis, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Summer 2003), pp. 495-510.
93. Several years ago, I predicted that North Korea would survive into the foreseeable future. David C. Kang, "Rolling with the Punches: North Korea and Cuba during the 1980s," Journal of East Asian Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Winter 1994), pp. 18-55.
94. Victor D. Cha and David C. Kang, Nuclear North Korea: A Debate on Engagement Strategies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003).
95. Daniel Okimoto writes, "[The U.S. alliances in Asia have] withstood the test of time, lasting for longer than a half-century; they have also functioned effectively to deter blackmail, coercion, conflict, and war." Okimoto, "KASA and JASA: Twin Pillars of Asia's Security Architecture," paper presented at the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia."
96. Khong is not a realist, though here he does offer the standard realist explanation for Manila's decision. Yuen Foong Khong, "Coping with Strategic Uncertainty: The Role of Institutions and Soft Balancing in Southeast Asia's Post-Cold War Strategy," in J.J. Suh, Peter J. Katzenstein, and Allen Carlson eds., Rethinking Security in East Asia: Identity, Power, and Efficiency (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, forthcoming).
97. CSIS Working Group on U.S.-R.O.K. Relations, "Strengthening the U.S.-R.O.K. Alliance: A Blueprint for the 21st Century" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2003).
98. Chung-min Lee, "Between Alliance and Autonomy: Reconceptualizing South Korea's Strategic Choices and Attendant Consequences," paper presented at the conference "Peace, Development, and Regionalization in East Asia," p. 162.
99. Chung-in Moon, "Between Banmi and Sungmi: Changing Images of the United States in South Korea," lecture presented at Georgetown University, August 20, 2003.
100. Aaron L. Friedberg, "Ripe for Rivalry: Prospects for Peace in a Multipolar World," International Security, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Winter 1993/94), pp. 5-33.