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The bHLH transcription factors OLIG2 and OLIG1 couple neuronal and glial subtype specification
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••] use knockout technology to examine the functions of the Olig1/2 bHLH transcription factors in cell specification during CNS development. They show that Olig2 is required for oligodendrocyte and motor neuron specification in the spinal cord, with Olig1 contributing to oligodendrocyte formation in the brain but not spinal cord. In the absence of Olig2, cells that would normally form oligodendrocytes and motor neurons become respecified to produce astrocytes and V2 interneurons. Together, these papers show that the Olig genes make a necessary contribution to the combinatorial code that specifies cell fate in the CNS. They also show that distinct cells normally produce both a glial cell (the oligodendrocyte) and a neuron (motor neurons), while other cells produce astrocytes. As such, the work provides clear evidence against the concept derived from cell culture studies of a glial restricted precursor cell that forms both oligodendrocytes and astrocytes.
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Soula C., Danesin C., Kan P., Grob M., Poncet C., Cochard P. Distinct sites of origin of oligodendrocytes and somatic motoneurons in the chick spinal cord: oligodendrocytes arise from Nkx2.2-expressing progenitors by a Shh-dependent mechanism. Development. 128:2001;1369-1379.
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Fu H., Qi Y., Tan M., Cai J., Takebayashi H., Nakafuku M., Richardson W., Qiu M. Dual origin of spinal oligodendrocyte progenitors and evidence for the cooperative role of Olig2 and Nkx2.2 in the control of oligodendrocyte differentiation. Development. 129:2002;681-693.
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Stolt C.C., Lommes P., Sock E., Chaboissier M.C., Schedl A., Wegner M. The Sox9 transcription factor determines glial fate choice in the developing spinal cord. Genes Dev. 17:2003;1677-1689.
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Stolt C.C., Rehberg S., Ader M., Lommes P., Riethmacher D., Schachner M., Bartsch U., Wegner M. Terminal differentiation of myelin-forming oligodendrocytes depends on the transcription factor Sox10. Genes Dev. 16:2002;165-170.
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Gaiano N., Fishell G. The role of notch in promoting glial and neural stem cell fates. Annu Rev Neurosci. 25:2002;471-490.
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Genoud S., Lappe-Siefke C., Goebbels S., Radtke F., Aguet M., Scherer S.S., Suter U., Nave K.A., Mantei N. Notch1 control of oligodendrocyte differentiation in the spinal cord. J Cell Biol. 158:2002;709-718.
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Hu Q.D., Ang B.T., Karsak M., Hu W.P., Cui X.Y., Duka T., Takeda Y., Chia W., Sankar N., Ng Y.K., et al. F3/Contactin acts as a functional ligand for Notch during oligodendrocyte maturation. Cell. 115:2003;163-175.
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Grinspan J.B., Edell E., Carpio D.F., Beesley J.S., Lavy L., Pleasure D., Golden J.A. Stage-specific effects of bone morphogenetic proteins on the oligodendrocyte lineage. J Neurobiol. 43:2000;1-17.
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Mekki-Dauriac S., Agius E., Kan P., Cochard P. Bone morphogenetic proteins negatively control oligodendrocyte precursor specification in the chick spinal cord. Development. 129:2002;5117-5130.
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Differential modulation of BMP signaling promotes the elaboration of cerebral cortical GABAergic neurons or oligodendrocytes from a common sonic hedgehog-responsive ventral forebrain progenitor species
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Yung S.Y., Gokhan S., Jurcsak J., Molero A.E., Abrajano J.J., Mehler M.F. Differential modulation of BMP signaling promotes the elaboration of cerebral cortical GABAergic neurons or oligodendrocytes from a common sonic hedgehog-responsive ventral forebrain progenitor species. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99:2002;16273-16278.
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Corbin J.G., Rutlin M., Gaiano N., Fishell G. Combinatorial function of the homeodomain proteins Nkx2.1 and Gsh2 in ventral telencephalic patterning. Development. 130:2003;4895-4906.
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Pringle N.P., Yu W.P., Howell M., Colvin J.S., Ornitz D.M., Richardson W.D. Fgfr3 expression by astrocytes and their precursors: evidence that astrocytes and oligodendrocytes originate in distinct neuroepithelial domains. Development. 130:2003;93-102.
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Oh L.Y., Denninger A., Colvin J.S., Vyas A., Tole S., Ornitz D.M., Bansal R. Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 signaling regulates the onset of oligodendrocyte terminal differentiation. J Neurosci. 23:2003;883-894.
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Heins N., Malatatesta P., Cecconi F., Nakafuku M., Tucker K.L., Hack M.A., Chapouton P., Barde Y.A., Gotz M. Glial cells generate neurons: the role of the transcription factor Pax6. Nat Neurosci. 5:2002;308-315.
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Neuregulin 1-erbB2 signaling is required for the establishment of radial glia and their transformation into astrocytes in cerebral cortex
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Schmid R.S., McGrath B., Berechid B.E., Boyles B., Marchionni M., Sestan N., Anton E.S. Neuregulin 1-erbB2 signaling is required for the establishment of radial glia and their transformation into astrocytes in cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100:2003;4251-4256.
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Patten B.A., Peyrin J.M., Weinmaster G., Corfas G. Sequential signaling through Notch1 and erbB receptors mediates radial glia differentiation. J Neurosci. 23:2003;6132-6140.
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31
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0037421992
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Neuronal or glial progeny: Regional differences in radial glia fate
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This paper addresses the identity of the neuronal precursor cell during CNS development. Previous work has established that radial glia can divide and produce neurons, but the extent to which this occurs in normal development is unclear. To address this, the authors use a GFAP promotor to express Cre recombinase in radial glia, and cross these mice with a reporter line expressing LacZ following recombination. This technique labels all the progeny of the radial glia, and shows that most cortical projection neurons derive from these glia. By contrast, few neurons from the basal ganglia derive from radial glia, and these differences are cell-autonomous (i.e. they are also seen in cell culture). These results show, convincingly, that radial glia, once thought of as having a primary function as guidepost cells for migration neurons, are, themselves, the precursor cells for many neurons during development and form an important part of the neural stem cell pool in the CNS.
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Malatesta P., Hack M.A., Hartfuss E., Kettenmann H., Klinkert W., Kirchhoff F., Gotz M. Neuronal or glial progeny: regional differences in radial glia fate. Neuron. 37:2003;751-764 This paper addresses the identity of the neuronal precursor cell during CNS development. Previous work has established that radial glia can divide and produce neurons, but the extent to which this occurs in normal development is unclear. To address this, the authors use a GFAP promotor to express Cre recombinase in radial glia, and cross these mice with a reporter line expressing LacZ following recombination. This technique labels all the progeny of the radial glia, and shows that most cortical projection neurons derive from these glia. By contrast, few neurons from the basal ganglia derive from radial glia, and these differences are cell-autonomous (i.e. they are also seen in cell culture). These results show, convincingly, that radial glia, once thought of as having a primary function as guidepost cells for migration neurons, are, themselves, the precursor cells for many neurons during development and form an important part of the neural stem cell pool in the CNS.
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Malatesta, P.1
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Gotz, M.7
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32
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0037437148
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Postnatal NG2 proteoglycan-expressing progenitor cells are intrinsically multipotent and generate functional neurons
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This paper examines the fate of the NG2+ proliferative precursor cell population that is present in many regions of the postnatal CNS. Previous work has suggested that this population represents restricted oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Using a transgenic mouse expressing GFP (green fluorescent protein), driven by the oligodendroglial CNP promotor (in which the majority of GFP+ cells express the NG2 marker), the authors show that these cells can generate functional neurons in vitro and that GFP+ cells that express markers of early neuronal differentiation can be seen in the hippocampus in vivo. These data add to the evidence against the concept of NG2+ cells being restricted oligodendrocyte precursor cells, and suggests that this population might also be part of the neurogenic precursor cells that are present throughout life in the CNS.
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Belachew S., Chittajallu R., Aguirre A.A., Yuan X., Kirby M., Anderson S., Gallo V. Postnatal NG2 proteoglycan-expressing progenitor cells are intrinsically multipotent and generate functional neurons. J Cell Biol. 161:2003;169-186 This paper examines the fate of the NG2+ proliferative precursor cell population that is present in many regions of the postnatal CNS. Previous work has suggested that this population represents restricted oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Using a transgenic mouse expressing GFP (green fluorescent protein), driven by the oligodendroglial CNP promotor (in which the majority of GFP+ cells express the NG2 marker), the authors show that these cells can generate functional neurons in vitro and that GFP+ cells that express markers of early neuronal differentiation can be seen in the hippocampus in vivo. These data add to the evidence against the concept of NG2+ cells being restricted oligodendrocyte precursor cells, and suggests that this population might also be part of the neurogenic precursor cells that are present throughout life in the CNS.
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J Cell Biol
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Belachew, S.1
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Mallon B.S., Shick H.E., Kidd G.J., Macklin W.B. Proteolipid promoter activity distinguishes two populations of NG2-positive cells throughout neonatal cortical development. J Neurosci. 22:2002;876-885.
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Suzuki S.O., Goldman J.E. Multiple cell populations in the early postnatal subventricular zone take distinct migratory pathways: a dynamic study of glial and neuronal progenitor migration. J Neurosci. 23:2003;4240-4250.
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0037047380
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Tsai H.H., Frost E., To V., Robinson S., ffrench-Constant C., Geertman R., Ransohoff R.M., Miller R.H. The chemokine receptor CXCR2 controls positioning of oligodendrocyte precursors in developing spinal cord by arresting their migration. Cell. 110:2002;373-383.
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Tsai, H.H.1
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Tsai H.H., Miller R.H. Glial cell migration directed by axon guidance cues. Trends Neurosci. 25:2002;173-175.
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Tsai H.H., Tessier-Lavigne M., Miller R.H. Netrin 1 mediates spinal cord oligodendrocyte precursor dispersal. Development. 130:2003;2095-2105.
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Jarjour A.A., Manitt C., Moore S.W., Thompson K.M., Yuh S.J., Kennedy T.E. Netrin-1 is a chemorepellent for oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the embryonic spinal cord. J Neurosci. 23:2003;3735-3744.
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39
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Directional guidance of oligodendroglial migration by class 3 semaphorins and netrin-1
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Spassky N., de Castro F., Le Bras B., Heydon K., Queraud-LeSaux F., Bloch-Gallego E., Chedotal A., Zalc B., Thomas J.L. Directional guidance of oligodendroglial migration by class 3 semaphorins and netrin-1. J Neurosci. 22:2002;5992-6004.
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Spassky, N.1
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40
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Ye P., Li L., Richards R.G., DiAugustine R.P., D'Ercole A.J. Myelination is altered in insulin-like growth factor-I null mutant mice. J Neurosci. 22:2002;6041-6051.
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41
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0037028061
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Adenosine: A neuron-glial transmitter promoting myelination in the CNS in response to action potentials
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Electrical activity is known to promote myelination in the CNS, but the mechanisms of this axo-glial interaction have been unclear. In the PNS, ATP has been shown to play such a role. This paper shows that oligodendrocyte precursor cells respond to electrical activity in axons in vitro, by displaying a reduction in cell proliferation and enhanced differentiation. These effects were inhibited by blocking purinergic adenosine receptors, as was myelination in co-cultures with dorsal root ganglia neurons. Added adenosine also inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation and migration. These results identify adenosine and the purinergic receptors expressed on oligodendrocyte precursor cells as an important part of activity-dependent axo-glial interactions in the CNS, and point to an interesting difference in axo-glial signaling between the CNS and PNS.
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Stevens B., Porta S., Haak L.L., Gallo V., Fields R.D. Adenosine: a neuron-glial transmitter promoting myelination in the CNS in response to action potentials. Neuron. 36:2002;855-868 Electrical activity is known to promote myelination in the CNS, but the mechanisms of this axo-glial interaction have been unclear. In the PNS, ATP has been shown to play such a role. This paper shows that oligodendrocyte precursor cells respond to electrical activity in axons in vitro, by displaying a reduction in cell proliferation and enhanced differentiation. These effects were inhibited by blocking purinergic adenosine receptors, as was myelination in co-cultures with dorsal root ganglia neurons. Added adenosine also inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation and migration. These results identify adenosine and the purinergic receptors expressed on oligodendrocyte precursor cells as an important part of activity-dependent axo-glial interactions in the CNS, and point to an interesting difference in axo-glial signaling between the CNS and PNS.
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Modifications to chromatin structure and consequent changes in gene repression are an important part of the mechanisms by which cells adopt neuronal or non-neuronal fates in CNS development. This paper shows that the later stages of oligodendrocyte differentiation also involve chromatin remodeling, as histone deacetylase (HA) activity is associated with differentiation, and inhibitors of HA prevent differentiation. Because HA causes chromatin compaction (turning genes off or rendering binding sites inaccessible), the consequences of HA activity during normal differentiation may be inhibition of the binding of a repressor of differentiation. As such, the paper adds an important new mechanism to the regulation of oligodendrocyte development.
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Marin-Husstege M., Muggironi M., Liu A., Casaccia-Bonnefil P. Histone deacetylase activity is necessary for oligodendrocyte lineage progression. J Neurosci. 22:2002;10333-10345 Modifications to chromatin structure and consequent changes in gene repression are an important part of the mechanisms by which cells adopt neuronal or non-neuronal fates in CNS development. This paper shows that the later stages of oligodendrocyte differentiation also involve chromatin remodeling, as histone deacetylase (HA) activity is associated with differentiation, and inhibitors of HA prevent differentiation. Because HA causes chromatin compaction (turning genes off or rendering binding sites inaccessible), the consequences of HA activity during normal differentiation may be inhibition of the binding of a repressor of differentiation. As such, the paper adds an important new mechanism to the regulation of oligodendrocyte development.
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Extracellular matrix molecules of the laminin family are required for normal myelination, as demonstrated by dysmyelination in mice and humans lacking the laminin-α2 subunit found in laminin-2 (merosin), -4 and -12. To identify the receptors involved, this paper uses a conditional knockout strategy to remove β1 integrin from differentiating Schwann cells (so overcoming the early embryonic lethality of the β1 knockout mouse) and shows a necessary role for β1 integrins in Schwann cell process formation and axon sorting, during myelination. Surprisingly, some cells do myelinate normally and no effects are seen on cell proliferation and survival, although this might reflect the late stage at which the β1 gene was excised when using the P0 promotor to drive cre recombinase expression. The results, therefore, clearly demonstrate a necessary role for β1 integrins (which contain several laminin receptors) in PNS myelination.
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Feltri M.L., Graus Porta D., Previtali S.C., Nodari A., Migliavacca B., Cassetti A., Littlewood-Evans A., Reichardt L.F., Messing A., Quattrini A., et al. Conditional disruption of beta 1 integrin in Schwann cells impedes interactions with axons. J Cell Biol. 156:2002;199-209 Extracellular matrix molecules of the laminin family are required for normal myelination, as demonstrated by dysmyelination in mice and humans lacking the laminin-α2 subunit found in laminin-2 (merosin), -4 and -12. To identify the receptors involved, this paper uses a conditional knockout strategy to remove β1 integrin from differentiating Schwann cells (so overcoming the early embryonic lethality of the β1 knockout mouse) and shows a necessary role for β1 integrins in Schwann cell process formation and axon sorting, during myelination. Surprisingly, some cells do myelinate normally and no effects are seen on cell proliferation and survival, although this might reflect the late stage at which the β1 gene was excised when using the P0 promotor to drive cre recombinase expression. The results, therefore, clearly demonstrate a necessary role for β1 integrins (which contain several laminin receptors) in PNS myelination.
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This paper examines the role of α6β1 integrin laminin receptors in CNS myelination. The authors confirm previous reports of axon-associated laminin alpha2 expression and then use α6 integrin knockout mice to show increased oligodendrocyte cell death and reduced differentiation when oligodendrocyte interaction with this laminin is perturbed by the loss of the integrin receptor. Potential mechanisms, dependent on integrin-growth factor interactions, are revealed by the amplification of PDGF survival signaling and the switching of neuregulin survival signaling from a PI3K pathway that inhibits differentiation to a MAPK pathway that promotes differentiation. In this way, the integrin mediates a classic target-dependent survival mechanism for the regulation of oligodendrocyte numbers and also provides a mechanism for the spatial regulation of growth factor signaling that ensures that differentiation only occurs in the appropriate context of axonal contact.
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Colognato H., Baron W., Avellana-Adalid V., Relvas J.B., Baron-Van Evercooren A., Georges-Labouesse E., ffrench-Constant C. CNS integrins switch growth factor signalling to promote target-dependent survival. Nat Cell Biol. 4:2002;833-841 This paper examines the role of α6β1 integrin laminin receptors in CNS myelination. The authors confirm previous reports of axon-associated laminin alpha2 expression and then use α6 integrin knockout mice to show increased oligodendrocyte cell death and reduced differentiation when oligodendrocyte interaction with this laminin is perturbed by the loss of the integrin receptor. Potential mechanisms, dependent on integrin-growth factor interactions, are revealed by the amplification of PDGF survival signaling and the switching of neuregulin survival signaling from a PI3K pathway that inhibits differentiation to a MAPK pathway that promotes differentiation. In this way, the integrin mediates a classic target-dependent survival mechanism for the regulation of oligodendrocyte numbers and also provides a mechanism for the spatial regulation of growth factor signaling that ensures that differentiation only occurs in the appropriate context of axonal contact.
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A traditional view of the cell-surface molecule NCAM is that it is an adhesion molecule that is involved in close-range cell-cell interactions via a homophilic binding mechanism. Here, the authors show that one NCAM isoform, NCAM140, binds the neurotrophic factor GDNF and initiates downstream signaling in association with the GDNF family receptor GFR1α. This results in decreased homophilic NCAM-mediated adhesion, increased cell migration and enhanced axon outgrowth in cell culture. Mice lacking the GFR1α show a similar migration-defective phenotype to the NCAM knockout in the rostral migratory stream, consistent with a role for a GDNF/GFR1α/NCAM interaction in this migration. This paper, therefore, provides an illustration of how cell-surface adhesion receptors can have a wider role in the integration of both short- and long-range cues in the regulation of cell behavior.
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Paratcha G., Ledda F., Ibanez C.F. The neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM is an alternative signaling receptor for GDNF family ligands. Cell. 113:2003;867-879 A traditional view of the cell-surface molecule NCAM is that it is an adhesion molecule that is involved in close-range cell-cell interactions via a homophilic binding mechanism. Here, the authors show that one NCAM isoform, NCAM140, binds the neurotrophic factor GDNF and initiates downstream signaling in association with the GDNF family receptor GFR1α. This results in decreased homophilic NCAM-mediated adhesion, increased cell migration and enhanced axon outgrowth in cell culture. Mice lacking the GFR1α show a similar migration-defective phenotype to the NCAM knockout in the rostral migratory stream, consistent with a role for a GDNF/GFR1α/NCAM interaction in this migration. This paper, therefore, provides an illustration of how cell-surface adhesion receptors can have a wider role in the integration of both short- and long-range cues in the regulation of cell behavior.
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