Fossils and plant phylogeny

American Journal of Botany

Volumn 91, Issue 10, 2004, Pages 1683-1699

  Crane, Peter R ^a   Herendeen, Patrick ^b   Friis, Else Marie ^c  

^a ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS   (United Kingdom)

^b GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c SWEDISH MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Angiosperms; Fossils; Paleobotany; Phylogeny; Spermatophytes; Tracheophytes

Indexed keywords

EVOLUTION; FOSSIL RECORD; PALEOBOTANY; PHYLOGENY; PLANT;

MAGNOLIOPHYTA; SPERMATOPHYTA; TRACHEOPHYTA;

EID: 11844278852     PISSN: 00029122     EISSN: 00029122     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3732/ajb.91.10.1683     Document Type: Review

References (169)

1. ANDERSON, J. M., AND H. M. ANDERSON. 2003. Heyday of the gymnosperms: systematics and biodiversity of the Late Triassic Molteno fructifications. Strelitzia 15: 1-398.
2. APG II. 2003. An update of the angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 399-436.
3. AXSMITH, B. J., E. L. TAYLOR, T. N. TAYLOR, AND N. R. CUNEO. 2000. New perspectives on the Mesozoic seed fern order Corystospermales based on attached organs from the Triassic of Antarctica. American Journal of Botany 87: 757-768.
4. BANKS, H. P. 1975. Reclassification of Psilophyta. Taxon 24: 401-413.
5. BANKS, H. P. 1992. The classification of early land plants-revisited. Geophytology 22: 49-64.
6. BATEMAN, R. M., P. R. CRANE, W. A. DIMICHELE, P. R. KENRICK, N. P. ROWE, T. SPECK, AND W. E. STEIN. 1998. Early evolution of land plants: phylogeny, physiology, and ecology of the primary terrestrial radiation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29: 263-292.
7. BATEMAN, R. M., AND W. A. DIMICHELE. 1994. Heterospory: the most iterative key innovation in the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom. Biological Reviews 69: 345-417.
8. BECK, C. B. 1960. The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon. Brittonia 12: 351-368.
9. BOWE, L. M., G. COAT, AND C. W. DE PAMPHILIS. 2000. Phylogeny of seed plants based on all three genomic compartments: extant gymnosperms are monophyletic and Gnetales' closest relatives are conifers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97: 4092-4097.
10. BRENNER, G. J. 1963. The spores and pollen of the Potomac Group of Maryland. Maryland Department of Geology, Mines and Water Resources Bulletin 27: 1-215.
11. BROWN, R. W. 1962. Paleocene flora of the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 375: 1-119, 69 pls.
12. BURLEIGH, J. G., AND S. MATHEWS. 2004. Phylogenetic signal in nucleotide data from seed plants: implications for resolving the seed plant tree of life. American Journal of Botany 91: 1599-1613.
13. CEVALLOS-FERRIZ, S. R., AND R. A. STOCKEY. 1991. Fruits and seeds from the Princeton Chert (middle Eocene) of British Columbia: Rosaceae (Prunoideae). Botanical Gazette 152: 369-379.
14. CHAW, S.-M., C. L. PARKINSON, Y. CHENG, T. M. VINCENT, AND J. D. PALMER. 2000. Seed plant phylogeny inferred from all three plant genomes: monophyly of extant gymnosperms and origin of Gnetales from conifers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97: 4086-4091.
15. CHRISTOPHER, R. A. 1979. Normapolles and triporate pollen assemblages from the Raritan and Magothy Formations (Upper Cretaceous) of New Jersey. Palynology 3: 73-121.
16. CRANE, P. R. 1981. Betulaceous leaves and fruits from the British Upper Palaeocene. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 83: 103-136.
17. CRANE, P. R. 1985. Phylogenetic analysis of seed plants and the origin of angiosperms. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 72: 716-793.
18. CRANE, P. R. 1988. Major clades and relationships in the "higher" gymnosperms. In C. B. Beck [ed.], Origin and evolution of gymnosperms, 218-272. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.
19. CRANE, P. R. 1989. Early fossil history and evolution of the Betulaceae. In P. R. Crane and S. Blackmore [eds.], Evolution, systematics and fossil history of the Hamamelidae, vol. 2, 87-116. Systematics Association Special Volume 40. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
20. CRANE, P. R. 1996. The fossil history of the Gnetales. International Journal of Plant Sciences 157(Supplement): S50-S57.
21. CRANE, P. R., E. M. FRIIS, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1989. Reproductive structure and function in Cretaceous Chloranthaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution 165: 211-226.
22. CRANE, P. R., E. M. FRIIS, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1995. The origin and early diversification of angiosperms. Nature 374: 27-33.
23. CRANE, P. R., AND P. S. HERENDEEN. 1996. Cretaceous floras containing angiosperm flowers and fruits from eastern North America. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 90: 319-337.
24. CRANE, P. R., AND C. R. HILL. 1987. Cladistic and paleobotanical approaches to plant phylogeny. In H. N. Hoenigswald [ed.], Biological metaphor and cladistic classification: an interdisciplinary perspective, 139-154. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
25. CRANE, P. R., AND P. KENRICK. 1997. Diverted development of reproductive organs: a source of morphological innovation in land plants. Plant Systematics and Evolution 206: 161-174.
26. CRANE, P. R., AND S. R. MANCHESTER. 1982. An extinct juglandaceous fruit from the upper Paleocene of southern England. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 85: 89-101.
27. CRANE, P. R., S. R. MANCHESTER, AND D. L. DILCHER. 1991. Reproductive and vegetative structure of Nordenskioldia (Trochodendraceae), a vesselless dicotyledon from the early Tertiary of the Northern Hemisphere. American Journal of Botany 78: 1311-1334.
28. CRANE, P. R., AND G. R. UPCHURCH. 1987. Drewria potomacensis gen. et sp. nov., an Early Cretaceous member of Gnetales from the Potomac Group of Virginia. American Journal of Botany 74: 1722-1736.
29. CREPET, W. L., AND K. C. NIXON. 1998a. Two new fossil flowers of magnoliid affinity from the Late Cretaceous of New Jersey. American Journal of Botany 85: 1273-1288.
30. CREPET, W. L., AND K. C. NIXON. 1998b. Fossil Clusiaceae from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian) of New Jersey and implications regarding the history of bee pollination. American Journal of Botany 85: 1122-1133.
31. DILCHER, D. L. 1973. A revision of the Eocene flora of southeastern North America. The Palaeobotanist 20: 7-18.
32. DILCHER, D. L. 1974. Approaches to the identification of angiosperm leaf remains. Botanical Review 40: 1-157.
33. DILCHER, D. L., AND P. R. CRANE. 1984. Archaeanthus: an early angiosperm from the Cenomanian of the Western Interior of North America. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71: 351-383.
34. DILCHER, D. L., F. W. POTTER, AND W. L. CREPET. 1976. Investigations of angiosperms from the Eocene of North America: juglandaceous winged fruits. American Journal of Botany 63: 532-544.
35. DONOGHUE, M. J., AND J. A. DOYLE. 2000. Seed plant phylogeny: demise of the anthophyte hypothesis? Current Biology 10: R106-R109.
36. DONOGHUE, M. J., J. A. DOYLE, J. GAUTHIER, A. G. KLUGE, AND T. ROWE. 1989. The importance of fossils in phylogeny reconstruction. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20: 431-460.
37. DOYLE, J. A. 1969. Cretaceous angiosperm pollen of the Atlantic Coastal Plain and its evolutionary significance. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 50: 1-35.
38. DOYLE, J. A. 1978. Origin of angiosperms. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9: 365-392.
39. DOYLE, J. A. 1992. Revised palynological correlation of the lower Potomac Group (USA) and the Cocobeach sequence of Gabon (Barremian-Aptian). Cretaceous Research 13: 337-349.
40. DOYLE, J. A. 1996. Seed plant phylogeny and the relationships of Gnetales. International Journal of Plant Sciences 157(6 Supplement): S3-S39.
41. DOYLE, J. A. 1998. Phylogeny of vascular plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Evolution 9: 448-462.
42. DOYLE, J. A. 2001. Significance of molecular phylogenetic analyses for paleobotanical investigations o the origin of angiosperms. The Palaeobotanist 50: 167-188.
43. DOYLE, J. A., AND M. J. DONOGHUE. 1986. Seed plant phylogeny and the origin of angiosperms: an experimental cladistic approach. Botanical Review 52: 321-431.
44. DOYLE, J. A., AND M. J. DONOGHUE. 1987. The importance of fossils in elucidating seed plant phylogeny and macroevolution. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 50: 63-95.
45. DOYLE, J. A., AND M. J. DONOGHUE. 1993. Phylogenies and angiosperm diversification. Paleobiology 19: 141-167.
46. DOYLE, J. A., H. EKLUND, AND P. S. HERENDEEN. 2003. Floral evolution in Chloranthaceae: implications of a morphological phylogenetic analysis. International Journal of Plant Sciences 164(Supplement): S365-S382.
47. DOYLE, J. A., AND P. K. ENDRESS. 2000. Morphological phylogenetic analysis of basal angiosperms: comparison and combination with molecular data. International Journal of Plant Sciences 161(Supplement): S121-S153.
48. DOYLE, J. A., AND L. J. HICKEY. 1976. Pollen and leaves from the mid-Cretaceous Potomac Group and their bearing on early angiosperm evolution. In C. B. Beck [ed.], Origin and early evolution of angiosperms, 139-206. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.
49. DRINNAN, A. N., P. R. CRANE, E. M. FRIIS, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1990. Lauraceous flowers from the Potomac Group (mid-Cretaceous) of eastern North America. Botanical Gazette 151: 370-384.
50. DRINNAN, A. N., P. R. CRANE, E. M. FRIIS, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1991. Angiosperm flowers and tricolpate pollen of buxaceous affinity from the Potomac Group (mid-Cretaceous) of eastern North America. American Journal of Botany 78: 153-176.
51. EAMES, A. J. 1952. Relationships of the Ephedrales. Phytomorphology 2: 79-100.
52. EDWARDS, D. 1996. New insights into early land plant ecosystems: a glimpse of a Lilliputian world. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 90: 159-174.
53. EDWARDS, D., J. E. DUCKETT, AND J. B. RICHARDSON. 1995. Hepatic characters in the earliest land plants. Nature 374: 635-636.
54. EDWARDS, D. S. 1986. Aglaophyton major, a non-vascular land-plant from the Devonian Rhynie Chert. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 93: 177-188.
55. EKLUND, H. 2003. First Cretaceous flowers from Antarctica. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 127: 187-217.
56. EKLUND, H., D. J. CANTRILL, AND J. E. FRANCIS. 2004a. Late Cretaceous plant mesofossils from Table Nunatak, Antarctica. Cretaceous Research 25: 211-228.
57. EKLUND, H., J. A. DOYLE, AND P. S. HERENDEEN. 2004b. Morphological phylogenetic analysis of living and fossil Chloranthaceae. International Journal of Plant Sciences 165: 107-151.
58. EKLUND, H., E. M. FRIIS, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1997. Chloranthaceous floral structures from the Late Cretaceous of Sweden. Plant Systematics and Evolution 207: 13-42.
59. FISHER, D. C. 1994. Stratocladistics: morphological and temporal patterns and their relation to phylogenetic process. In L. Grande and O. Rieppel [eds.], Interpreting the heirarchy of nature, 133-171. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
60. FLORIN, R. 1939. The morphology of the female fructifications in Cordaites and conifers of Palaeozoic age. Botaniska Notiser 36: 547-565.
61. FLORIN, R. 1951. Evolution in cordaites and conifers. Acta Horti Bergiani 15: 285-388.
62. FRIEDMAN, W. E., AND M. E. COOK. 2000. The origin and early evolution of tracheids in vascular plants: integration of paleobotanical and neobotanical data. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 355: 857-868.
63. FRIIS, E. M. 1983. Upper Cretaceous (Senonian) floral structures of juglandalean affinity containing Normapolles pollen. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 39: 161-188.
64. FRIIS, E. M. 1984. Preliminary report of Upper Cretaceous angiosperm reproductive organs from Sweden and their level of organization. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71: 403-418.
65. FRIIS, E. M. 1990. Silvianthemum suecicum gen. et sp. nov., a new saxifragalean flower from the Late Cretaceous of Sweden. Biologiske Skrifter 36: 1-35.
66. FRIIS, E. M., P. R. CRANE, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1988. Reproductive structures of Cretaceous Platanaceae. Biologiske Skrifter 31: 1-55.
67. FRIIS, E. M., P. R. CRANE, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1997a. Anacostia, a new basal angiosperm from the Early Cretaceous of North American and Portugal with trichotomocolpate/monocolpate pollen. Grana 36: 225-244.
68. FRIIS, E. M., P. R. CRANE, AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1997b. Fossil history of magnoliid angiosperms. In K. Iwatsuki and P. H. Raven [eds.], Evolution and diversification of land plants, 121-156. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, Japan.
69. FRIIS, E. M., J. A. DOYLE, P. K. ENDRESS, AND Q. LENG. 2003a. Archaefructus - angiosperm precurser or specialized early angiosperm? Trends in Plant Science 8: 363-373.
70. FRIIS, E. M., AND K. R. PEDERSEN. 1996. Eucommiitheca hirsuta, a new pollen organ from the Early Cretaceous of Portugal. Grana 35: 104-112.
71. FRIIS, E. M., K. R. PEDERSEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 1992. Esgueiria gen. nov., fossil flowers with combretaceous features from the Late Cretaceous of Portugal. Biologiske Skrifter 41: 1-45.
72. FRIIS, E. M., K. R. PEDERSEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 1999. Early angiosperm diversification: the diversity of pollen associated with angiosperm reproductive structures in Early Cretaceous floras from Portugal. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86: 259-296.
73. FRIIS, E. M., K. R. PEDERSEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 2000. Fossil floral structures of a basal angiosperm with monocolpate, reticulate-acolumellate pollen from the Early Cretaceous of Portugal. Grana 39: 226-239.
74. FRIIS, E. M., K. R. PEDERSEN, AND J. SCHÖNENBERGER. 2003b. Endressianthus, a new Normapolles-producing plant genus of fagalean affinity from the Late Cretaceous of Portugal. International Journal of Plant Sciences 164(Supplement): S201-S223.
75. FRIIS, E. M., AND A. SKARBY. 1981. Structurally preserved angiosperm flowers from the Upper Cretaceous of southern Sweden. Nature 291: 485-486.
76. FRIIS, E. M., AND A. SKARBY. 1982. Scandianthus gen. nov., angiosperm flowers of saxifragalean affinity from the Upper Cretaceous of southern Sweden. Annals of Botany, new series 50: 569-583.
77. FRUMIN, S., AND E. M. FRIIS. 1995. Liriodendroid seeds from the Late Cretaceous of Kazakhstan and North Carolina. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 94: 39-55.
78. GAUTHIER, J., A. G. KLUGE, AND T. ROWE. 1988. Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics 4: 105-209.
79. GANDOLFO, M. A., K. C. NIXON, AND W. L. CREPET. 1998a. A new fossil flower form the Turonian of New Jersey: Dressanthia bicarpellata gen. et sp. nov. (Capparales). American Journal of Botany 85: 964-974.
80. GANDOLFO, M. A., K. C. NIXON, AND W. L. CREPET. 1998b. Tylerianthus crossmanensis gen. et sp. nov. (aff. Hydrangeaceae) from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. American Journal of Botany 85: 376-386.
81. GUO, S. X., AND X.-W. WU. 2000. Ephedrites from latest Jurassic Yixian Formation in western Liaoning, northeast China. Acta Palaeontologica Sinica 39: 81-91.
82. HANSEN, A., S. HANSMANN, T. SAMIGULLIN, A. ANTONOV, AND W. MARTIN. 1999. Gnetum and the angiosperms: molecular evidence that their shared morphological characters are convergent rather than homologous. Molecular Biology and Evolution 16: 1006-1009.
83. HARRIS, T. M. 1932. The fossil flora of Scoresby Sound, East Greenland, part 3, Caytoniales and Bennettitales. Meddelelser om Grønland 85: 1-133.
84. HARRIS, T. M. 1964. The Yorkshire Jurassic flora. II. Caytoniales, Cycadales and Pteridosperms. British Museum (Natural History), London, UK.
85. HARRIS, T. M. 1969. The Yorkshire Jurassic flora. III. Bennettitales. British Museum (Natural History), London, UK.
86. HERENDEEN, P. S., AND P. R. CRANE. 1995. The fossil history of the monocotyledons. In P. J. Rudall, P. Cribb, D. F. Cutler, and C. J. Humphries [eds.], Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution, 1-21. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK.
87. HERENDEEN, P. S., P. R. CRANE, AND A. N. DRINNAN. 1995. Fagaceous flowers, fruits and cupules from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of central Georgia, USA. International Journal of Plant Sciences 156: 93-116.
88. HERENDEEN, P. S., W. L. CREPET, AND K. C. NIXON. 1993. Chloranthus-like stamens from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. American Journal of Botany 80: 865-871.
89. HERENDEEN, P. S., W. L. CREPET, AND K. C. NIXON. 1994. Fossil flowers and pollen of Lauraceae from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. Plant Systematics and Evolution 189: 29-40.
90. HERENDEEN, P. S., S. MAGALLÓN-PUEBLA, R. LUPIA, P. R. CRANE, AND J. KOBYLINSKA. 1999. A preliminary conspectus of the Allon flora from the Late Cretaceous (late Santonian) of central Georgia, U.S.A. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86: 407-471.
91. HICKEY, L. J., AND J. A. DOYLE. 1977. Early Cretaceous fossil evidence for angiosperm evolution. Botanical Review 43: 2-104.
92. HICKEY, L. J., AND J. A. WOLFE. 1975. The bases of angiosperm phylogeny: vegetative morphology. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 62: 538-589.
93. HILL, C. R., AND P. R. CRANE. 1982. Evolutionary cladistics and the origin of angiosperms. In K. A. Joysey and A. E. Friday [eds.], Problems of phylogenetic reconstruction, 269-361. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.
94. HILTON, J., S.-J. WANG, AND B. TIAN. 2003. Reinvestigation of Cardiocarpus minor (Wang) Li nomen nudum from the Lower Permian of China and its implications for seed plant taxonomy, systematics and phylogeny. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 151-175.
95. HOTTON, C. L., AND W. E. STEIN. 1994. An ontogenetic model for the Mississippian seed plant family Calamopityaceae. International Journal of Plant Sciences 155: 119-142.
96. HUGHES, N. O. 1976. Palaeobiology of angiosperm origins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
97. HUGHES, N. O. 1994. The enigma of angiosperm origins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
98. HUGHES, N. O., G. E. DREWRY, AND J. F. LAING. 1979. Barremian earliest angiosperm pollen. Palaeontology 22: 513-535.
99. HUELSENBECK, J. P. 1994. Comparing the stratigraphic record to estimates of phylogeny. Paleobiology 20: 470-483.
100. KELLER, J. A., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 1996. Fossil flowers and fruits of the Actinidiaceae from the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) of Georgia. American Journal of Botany 83: 528-541.
101. KENRICK, P., AND P. R. CRANE. 1997. The origin and early diversification of land plants. A cladistic study. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C., USA.
102. KIDSTON, R., AND W. H. LANG. 1917. On Old Red Sandstone plants showing structure from the Rhynie chert bed, Aberdeenshire. I. Rhynia gwynnevaughanii, Kidston and Lang. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 51: 761-784.
103. KLAVINS, S. D., T. N. TAYLOR, AND E. L. TAYLOR. 2002. Anatomy of Umkomasia (Corystospermales) from the Triassic of Antarctica. American Journal of Botany 89: 664-676.
104. KNOBLOCH, E., AND D. H. MAI. 1986. Monographie der Fruchte und Samen in der Kreide von Mitteleuropa. Rozpravy ústředního ústavu geologického, Praha 47: 1-219.
105. KRASSILOV, V. A., AND E. V. BUGDAEVA. 1988. Gnetalean plants from the Jurassic of Ust-Balej, east Siberia USSR. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 53: 359-374.
106. KVACEK, J., AND B. PACLTOVÁ. 2001. Bayeritheca hughesii gen et sp. nov., a new Eucommiidites-bearing pollen organ from the Cenomanian of Bohemia. Cretaceous Research 22: 695-704.
107. LI, C.-S., AND D. EDWARDS. 1992. A new genus of early land plants with novel strobilar construction from the Lower Devonian Posongchong Formation, Yunnan Province, China. Palaeontology 35: 257-272.
108. LIDGARD, S., AND P. R. CRANE. 1990. Angiosperm diversification and Cretaceous floristic trends: a comparison of palynofloras and leaf macrofloras. Paleobiology 16: 77-93.
109. LYON, A. G., AND D. EDWARDS. 1991. The first zosterophyll from the Lower Devonian Rhynie chert, Aberdeenshire. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 82: 323-332.
110. MAGALLÓN-PUEBLA, S., P. R. CRANE, AND P. S. HERENDEEN. 1999. Phylogenetic pattern, diversity and diversification of eudicots. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 86: 297-372.
111. MAGALLÓN-PUEBLA, S., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 1997. Quadriplatanus georgianus gen. et sp. nov.: staminate and pistillate platanaceous flowers from the Late Cretaceous (Coniacian-Santonian) of Georgia, U.S.A. International Journal of Plant Sciences 158: 373-394.
112. MAGALLÓN, S., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 2001. Floral diversity in Hamamelidoideae (Hamamelidaceae): Androdecidua endressi gen. et sp. nov. from the late Santonian (Late Cretaceous) of Georgia, U.S.A. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: 963-983.
113. MAGALLÓN-PUEBLA, S., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. K. ENDRESS. 1996. Allonia decandra: floral remains of the tribe Hamamelideae (Hamamelidaceae) from Campanian strata of southeastern USA. Plant Systematics and Evolution 202: 177-198.
114. MAGALLÓN, S., AND M. J. SANDERSON. 2002. Relationships among seed plants inferred from highly conserved genes: sorting conflicting phylogenetic signals among ancient lineages. American Journal of Botany 89: 1991-2006.
115. MANCHESTER, S. R. 1987. The fossil history of the Juglandaceae. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 21: 1-137.
116. MANCHESTER, S. R. 1989. Early history of the Juglandaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution 162: 231-250.
117. MANCHESTER, S. R. 1994. Fruits and seeds of the middle Eocene Nut Beds flora, Clarno Formation, Oregon. Palaeontographica Americana 58: 1-205.
118. MANCHESTER, S. R. 2000. Late Eocene fossil plants of the John Day Formation, Wheeler County, Oregon. Oregon Geology 62: 51-63.
119. MANCHESTER, S. R., AND Z.-D. CHEN. 1998. A new genus of Coryloideae (Betulaceae) from the Paleocene of North America. International Journal of Plant Sciences 159: 522-532.
120. MANCHESTER, S. R., AND P. R. CRANE. 1987. A new genus of Betulaceae from the Oligocene of western North America. Botanical Gazette 148: 263-273.
121. MANCHESTER, S. R., P. R. CRANE, AND D. L. DILCHER. 1991. Nordenskioldia and Trochodendron (Trochodendraceae) from the Miocene of northwestern North America. Botanical Gazette 152: 357-368.
122. MANCHESTER, S. R., P. R. CRANE, AND L. B. GOLOVNEVA. 1999. An extinct genus with affinities to extant Davidia and Camptotheca (Cornales) from the Paleocene of North America and eastern Asia. International Journal of Plant Sciences 160: 188-207.
123. MARSHALL, C. R. 1990. Confidence intervals on stratigraphic ranges. Paleobiology 16: 1-10.
124. MCKINNEY, M. L. 1991. Completeness of the fossil record: an overview. In S. K. Donovan [ed.], The processes of fossilization, 66-83. Belhaven Press, London, UK.
125. MEEUSE, A. D. J. 1961. The Pentoxylales and the origin of the monocotyledons. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse, Akademie van Wentsenschappen 64: 543-559.
126. MEEUSE, A. D. J. 1966. Fundamentals of phytomorphology. Ronald, New York, New York, USA.
127. MEYEN, S. V. 1987. Fundamentals of palaeobotany. Chapman and Hall, London, UK.
128. MULLER, J. 1970. Palynological evidence on early differentiation of angiosperms. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 45: 417-450.
129. NIXON, K. C. 1996. Paleobotany in cladistics and cladistics in paleobotany: enlightenment and uncertainty. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 90: 361-373.
130. NIXON, K. C., W. L. CREPET, D. STEVENSON, AND E. M. FRIIS. 1994. A reevaluation of seed plant phylogeny. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 81: 484-533.
131. OLIVER, F. W., AND D. H. SCOTT. 1904. On the structure of the Palaeozoic seed Lagenostoma lomaxi, with a statement of the evidence upon which it is referred to Lyginodendron. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 197: 193-247.
132. PATTERSON, C. 1981. Significance of fossils in determining evolutionary relationships. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 12: 195-223.
133. PEDERSEN, K. R., P. R. CRANE, A. N. DRINNAN, AND E. M. FRIIS. 1991. Fruits from the mid-Cretaceous of North America with pollen grains of the Clavatipollenites type. Grana 30: 577-590.
134. PEDERSEN, K. R., P. R. CRANE, AND E. M. FRIIS. 1989. Pollen organs and seeds with Eucommiidites pollen. Grana 28: 279-294.
135. PIGG, K. B., AND R. A. STOCKEY. 1996. The significance of the Princeton chert permineralized flora to the Middle Eocene upland biota of the Okanogan Highlands. Washington Geology 24: 32-36.
136. PRYER, K. M., H. SCHNEIDER, A. R. SMITH, R. CRANFILL, P. G. WOLF, J. S. HUNT, AND S. D. SIPES. 2001. Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic group and the closest living relatives to seed plants. Nature 409: 618-622.
137. QIU, Y.-L., AND J. LEE. 2000. Transition to a land flora: a molecular phylogenetic perspective. Journal of Phycology 36: 799-802.
138. QIU, Y.-L., J. LEE, F. BERNASCONI-QUADRONI, D. E. SOLTIS, P. S. SOLTIS, M. ZANIS, E. A. ZIMMER, Z. CHEN, V. SAVALAINEN, AND M. W. CHASE. 1999. The earliest angiosperms: evidence from mitochondrial, plastid and nuclear genomes. Nature 402: 404-407.
139. QIU, Y.-L., AND J. D. PALMER. 1999. Phylogeny of basal land plants: insights from genes and genomes. Trends in Plant Science 4: 26-30.
140. REMY, W., P. G. GENSEL, AND H. HASS. 1993. The gametophyte generation of some early Devonian land plants. International Journal of Plant Sciences 154: 35-58.
141. REMY, W., AND R. REMY. 1980. Lyonophyton rhyniensis nov. gen. et nov. sp., ein Gametophyt aus dem Chert von Rhynie (Unterdevon, Schottland). Argumenta Palaeobotanica 6: 37-72.
142. ROTHWELL, G. W. 1975. The Callistophytaceae (Pteridospermopsida). I. Vegetative structures. Paleontographica B 151: 171-196.
143. ROTHWELL, G. W. 1980. The Callistophytaceae (Pteridospermopsida). II. Reproductive features. Paleontographica B 173: 85-106.
144. ROTHWELL, G. R. 1981. The Callistophytales (Pteridospermopsida): reproductively sophisticated Paleozoic gymnosperms. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 32: 103-121.
145. ROTHWELL, G. R. 1999. Fossils and ferns in the resolution of land plant phylogeny. Botanical Review 65: 188-218.
146. ROTHWELL, G. R., AND R. SERBET. 1994. Lignophyte phylogeny and the evolution of spermatophytes: a numerical cladistic analysis. Systematic Botany 19: 443-482.
147. RYDIN, C., M. KÄLLERSJÖ, AND E. M. FRIIS. 2002. Seed plant relationships and the systematic position of Gnetales based on nuclear and chloroplast DNA: conflicting data, rooting problems, and the monophyly of conifers. International Journal of Plant Sciences 163: 197-214.
148. RYDIN, C. M., B. MOHR, AND E. M. FRIIS. 2003. Cratonia cotyledon gen. et sp. nov.: a unique Cretaceous seedling related to Welwitschia. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, B, Biological Sciences (Supplement) 270: S29-S32.
149. SCHÖNENBERGER, J., AND E. M. FRIIS. 2001. Fossil flowers of ericalean affinity from the Late Cretaceous of southern Sweden. American Journal of Botany 88: 467-480.
150. SCHÖNENBERGER, J., E. M. FRIIS, M. L. MATTHEWS, AND P. K. ENDRESS. 2001. Cunoniaceae in the Cretaceous of Europe: evidence from fossil flowers. Annals of Botany 88: 423-437.
151. SCOTLAND, R. W., R. G. OLMSTEAD, AND J. R. BENNETT. 2003. Phylogeny reconstruction: the role of morphology. Systematic Biology 52: 539-548.
152. SHAW, J., AND K. RENZAGLIA. 2004. The phylogeny and diversification of bryophytes. American Journal of Botany 91: 1557-1581.
153. SIMS, H. J., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 1998. New genus of fossil Fagaceae from the Santonian (Late Cretaceous) of central Georgia,U.S.A. International Journal of Plant Sciences 159: 391-404.
154. SOLTIS, D. E., P. S. SOLTIS, AND M. J. ZANIS. 2002. Phylogeny of seed plants based on evidence from eight genes. American Journal of Botany 89: 1670-1681.
155. SOLTIS, P. S., AND D. E. SOLTIS. 2004. The origin and diversification of angiosperms. American Journal of Botany 91:.
156. STEIN, W. 1993. Modeling the evolution of stellar architecture in vascular plants. International Journal of Plant Sciences 154: 229-263.
157. STOCKEY, R. A., B. A. LEPAGE, AND K. B. PIGG. 1998. Permineralized fruits of Diplopanax (Cornaceae, Mastixiodeae) from the middle Eocene Princeton chert of British Columbia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 103: 223-234.
158. SUN, G., D. L. DILCHER, S. ZHEN, AND Z. ZHOU. 1998. In search of the first flower: a Jurassic angiosperm, Archaefructus, from northeast China. Science 282: 1692-1695.
159. SUN, G., Q. JI, D. L. DILCHER, S. ZHENG, K. C. NIXON, AND X. WANG. 2002. Archaefructaceae, a new basal angiosperm family. Science 296: 899-904.
160. TAKAHASHI, M., P. R. CRANE, AND H. ANDO. 1999. Fossil flowers and associated plant fossils from the Kamikitaba locality (Ashizawa Formation, Futuba Group, lower Coniacian, Upper Cretaceous) of northeast Japan. Journal of Plant Research 112: 187-206.
161. TAKAHASHI, M., P. R. CRANE, AND S. R. MANCHESTER. 2003. Hironoia fusiformis gen. et sp. nov.: a cornalean fruit from the Kamikitaba locality (Upper Cretaceous, Lower Coniacian) in northeastern Japan. Journal of Plant Research 115: 463-473.
162. TAKAHASHI, M., P. S. HERENDEEN, AND P. R. CRANE. 2001. Lauraceous fossil flowers from the Kamikitaba locality (Lower Coniacian; Upper Cretaceous) in northeastern Japan. Journal of Plant Research 114: 429-434.
163. TAYLOR, E. L. 1996. Enigmatic gymnosperms? Structurally preserved Permian and Triassic seed ferns from Antarctica. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 90: 303-318.
164. TAYLOR, E. L., AND T. N. TAYLOR. 1992. Reproductive biology of the Permian Glossopteridales and their suggested relationship to the flowering plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89: 11495-11497.
165. THOMAS, H. H. 1925. The Caytoniales, a new group of angiospermous plants from the Jurassic rocks of Yorkshire. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B 213: 299-363.
166. VAN KONIJNENBURG-VAN CITTERT, J. H. A., AND H. S. MORGANS. 1999. The Jurassic flora of Yorkshire. The Palaeontological Association, London, UK.
167. WALKER, J. W., AND A. G. WALKER. 1984 [1985]. Ultrastructure of Lower Cretaceous angiosperm pollen and the origin and early evolution of flowering plants. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71: 464-521.
168. YAO, X., T. N. TAYLOR, AND E. L. TAYLOR. 1995. The corystosperm pollen organ Pteruchus from the Triassic of Argentina. American Journal of Botany 82: 535-546.
169. ZHOU, Z., P. M. BARRETT, AND J. HILTON. 2003. An exceptionally preserved Lower Cretaceous ecosystem. Nature 421: 807-814.