Therapeutic update on the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism

Journal of Pharmacy Practice

Volumn 17, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 289-307

  McGuire, Mike ^a  

^a Kos Pharmaceuticals   (United States)

Author keywords

Low molecular weight heparins; Self directed treatment; Venous thromboembolism

Indexed keywords

ALTEPLASE; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; DALTEPARIN; ENOXAPARIN; FONDAPARINUX; HEPARIN; HEPARINOID; IDRAPARINUX; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; MELAGATRAN; NADROPARIN; PLACEBO; STREPTOKINASE; TINZAPARIN; UROKINASE; WARFARIN; XIMELAGATRAN;

ACUTE DISEASE; BLEEDING; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG HALF LIFE; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; GENERAL SURGERY; HEMATOMA; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HIP FRACTURE; HIP SURGERY; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; IATROGENIC DISEASE; LUNG EMBOLISM; META ANALYSIS; OUTPATIENT CARE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; THROMBOEMBOLISM; THROMBOSIS PREVENTION; TOTAL HIP PROSTHESIS; TOTAL KNEE REPLACEMENT; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 10644239186     PISSN: 08971900     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0897190004271779     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Hirsh J, Hoak J. Management of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Council on Thrombosis (in consultation with the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology), American Heart Association. Circulation. 1996;93:2212-2245.
2. Anderson FA, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, et al. A population-based perspective of the hospital incidence and case-fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The Worcester DVT Study. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:933-938.
3. Goldhaber SZ. Pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:93-104.
4. Rubinstein I, Murray D, Hoffstein V. Fatal pulmonary embolism in hospitalized patients. Arch Intern Med. 1998;148:1425-1426.
5. Horlander KT, Mannino DM, Leeper KV. Pulmonary embolism mortality in the United States, 1979-1998: an analysis using multiple-cause mortality data. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1711-1717.
6. Franzeck UK, Schalch I, Jager KA, et al. Prospective 12-year follow-up study of clinical and hemodynamic sequelae after deep vein thrombosis in low-risk patients (Zurich study). Circulation. 1996;93:74-79.
7. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Cogo A, et al. The long-term clinical course of acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:1-7.
8. Silverstein MD, Heit JA, Mohr DN, et al. Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 1998;185:585-593.
9. Geerts WH, Heit JA, Clagett GP, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Chest. 2001;119:132S-175S.
10. Thromboembolic Risk Factors Consensus Group. Risk of and prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in hospital patients. BMJ. 1992;305:567-574.
11. Anderson FA, Wheeler B, Goldberg RJ, Hosmer DW, Forcier A. The prevalence of risk factors for venous thromboembolism among hospital patients. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1660-1664.
12. Anderson FA, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, et al. Physician practices in the prevention of VTE. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:591-595.
13. Arnold DM, Kahn SR, Shrier I. Missed opportunities for prevention of venous thromboembolism: an evaluation of the use of thromboprophylaxis guidelines. Chest. 2001;120:1964-1971.
14. Frostick S. Death after joint replacement. Hemostasis. 2000;30(suppl):84-87.
15. Hull R, Raskob G, Pineo G, et al. A comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular weight heparin with warfarin sodium for prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis after hip or knee implantation. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1370-1376.
16. The RD Heparin Arthroplasty Group. RD heparin compared with warfarin for prevention of venous thromboembolic disease following total hip or knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76:1174-1185.
17. Hamulyak K, Lensing AWA, van der Meer J, et al. Subcutaneous low-molecular weight heparin or oral anticoagulants for the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in elective hip and knee replacement? Thromb Haemost. 1995;74:1428-1431.
18. Francis CW, Pellegrini VD, Totterman S, et al. Prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip arthroplasty: comparison of warfarin and dalteparin. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1997;79:1365-1372.
19. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Francis CW, et al. Low-molecular weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin in close proximity to surgery versus warfarin in hip arthroplasty patients: a double-blind, randomized comparison. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2199-2207.
20. Colwell CW, Collis DK, Paulson R, et al. Comparison of enoxaparin and warfarin for the prevention of venous thromboembolic disease after total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1999;81:932-940.
21. Leclerc JR, Geets WH, Desjardins L, et al. Prevention of VTE after knee arthroplasty: a randomized, double-blind trial comparing enoxaparin with warfarin. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:619-626.
22. Heit JA, Berkowitz SD, Bona R, et al. Efficacy and safety of low molecular weight heparin (ardeparin sodium) compared to warfarin for the prevention of VTE after total knee replacement surgery: a double-blind, dose-ranging study. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:32-38.
23. Spiro TE, Fitzgerald RH, Trowbridge AA, et al. Enoxaparin a low molecular weight heparin and warfarin for the prevention of venous thromboembolic disease after elective knee replacement surgery [abstract]. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77(suppl 3):317.
24. Lormeau JC, Herault JP. The effect of the synthetic pentasaccharide SR 90107/ORG 31540 on thrombin generation ex vivo is uniquely due to AT III-mediated neutralization of factor Xa. Thromb Haemost. 1995;74:1474-1477.
25. Trupie AG, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Lassen MR. Postoperative fondaparinux versus postoperative enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective hip-replacement surgery: a randomized double-blind trial. Lancet. 2002;359:1721-1726.
26. Lassen MR, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Turpie AG. Postoperative fondaparinux versus preoperative enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism in elective hip-replacement surgery: a randomized double-blind comparison. Lancet. 2002;359:1715-1720.
27. Bauer KA, Eriksson BE, Lassen MR, Turpie AG. Fondaparinux compared with enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective major knee surgery. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1305-1310.
28. Monreal M, Lafoz E, Navarre A, et al. A prospective double-blind trial of a low molecular weight heparin once daily compared with conventional low-dose heparin three times daily to prevent pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis in patients with hip fracture. J Trauma. 1989;29:873-875.
29. Barsotti J, Gruel Y, Rosset P, et al. Comparative double-blind study of two dosage regimens of low-molecular weight heparin in elderly patients with a fracture of the neck of the femur. J Orthop Trauma. 1990;4:371-375.
30. Bergqvist D, Kettunen K, Fredin H, et al. Thromboprophylaxis in patients with hip fractures: a prospective, randomized, comparative study between Org 10172 and dextran 70. Surgery. 1991:109:617-622.
31. Agnelli G, Cosmi B, Di Filippo P, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of dermatan sulphate for prevention of deep vein thrombosis in hip fracture. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:203-208.
32. Gent M, Hirsh J, Ginsberg JS, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparinoid orgaran is more effective than aspirin in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after surgery for hip fracture. Circulation. 1996;93:80-84.
33. Borgstrom S, Greitz T, Van Der Linden W, Molin J, Rudics I. Anticoagulant prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in patients with fractured neck of the femur: a controlled clinical trial using venous phlebography. Acta Chir Scand. 1965;129:500-508.
34. Hamilton HW, Crawford JS, Gardiner JH, Wiley AM. Venous thrombosis in patients with fracture of the upper end of the femur: a phlebographic study of the effect of prophylactic anticoagulation. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1970;52:268-289.
35. Bronge A, Dahlgren S, Lindquist B. Prophylaxis against thrombosis in femoral neck fractures: a comparison between dextran 70 and dicumarol. Acta Chir Scand. 1971;137:29-35.
36. Bergquist E, Bergvist D, Bronge S, Dahlgren S, Lindquist B. An evaluation of early thrombosis prophylaxis following fracture of the femoral neck: a comparison between dextran and dicoumarol. Acta Chir Scand. 1972;138:689-693.
37. Powers PJ, Gent M, Jay RM, et al. A randomized trial of less intense postoperative warfarin or aspirin therapy in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after surgery for fractured hip. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:771-774.
38. Eriksson BI, Bauer KA, Lassen MR, Turpie AG. Fondaparinux compared with enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after hip-fracture surgery. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1298-1304.
39. White RH, Romano PS, Zhou H, Rodrigo J, Bargar W. Incidence and time course of thromboembolic outcomes following total hip or knee arthroplasty. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:1525-1531.
40. Bergqvist D, Benoni G, Bjorgell O, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin (enoxaparin) as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:696-700.
41. Planes A, Vochelle N, Darmon JY, et al. Risk of deep-venous thrombosis after hospital discharge in patients having undergone total hip replacement: double-blind randomized comparison of enoxaparin versus placebo. Lancet. 1996;348:224-228.
42. Dahl OE, Andreassen G, Aspelin T, et al. Prolonged thromboprophylaxis following hip replacement surgery: results of a double-blind, prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study with dalteparin (Fragmin). Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:26-31.
43. Lassen MR, Borris LC, Anderson BS, et al. Efficacy and safety of prolonged thromboprophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin (dalteparin) after total hip arthroplasty. The Danish Prolonged Prophylaxis (DaPP) Study. Thromb Res. 1998;89:281-287.
44. Heit JA, Elliott CG, Trowbridge AA, et al. Ardeparin sodium for extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:853-861.
45. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Francis C, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis using dalteparin extended out-of-hospital vs in-hospital warfarin/out-of-hospital placebo in hip arthroplasty patients: a double-blind, randomized comparison. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2208-2215.
46. Comp PC, Spiro TE, Friedman RJ, et al. Prolonged enoxaparin therapy to prevent venous thromboembolism after primary hip and knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83:336-345.
47. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Stein PD, et al. Extended out-of-hospital low-molecular-weight heparin prophylaxis against deep venous thrombosis in patients after elective hip arthroplasty: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2001;135:858-869.
48. Eikelboom JW, Quinian DJ, Douketis JD. Extended-duration prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials. Lancet. 2001;358:9-15.
49. Eriksson BI, Lassen MR. Duration of prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism with fondaparinux after hip replacement surgery: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1337-1342.
50. Agnelli G, ed. Fondaparinux in the prevention of venous thromboembolism in abdominal surgery: a multicenter randomised double-blind study in comparison to dalteparin (The PEGASUS study). In: Proceedings of the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis. Birmingham, UK: International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis; July 2003.
51. Kakkar AK, Williamson RCN. Prevention of VTE in cancer patients. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1999;25:239-243.
52. Berqvist D. Venous thromboembolism and cancer: prevention of VTE. Thromb Res. 2001;102:209-213.
53. Halkin H, Goldberg J, Mordan M, et al. Reduction of mortality in general medical in-patients by low-dose heparin prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96:561-565.
54. Clarke-Pearson DL, Coleman RE, Synan IS, Hinshaw W, Creasman WT. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in gynecologic oncology: a prospective, controlled trial of low-dose heparin. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;145:606-613.
55. Clark-Pearson DL, DeLong E, Synan IS, et al. A controlled trial of two low-dose heparin regimens for the prevention of postoperative deep vein thrombosis. Obstet Gynecol. 1990;75:684-689.
56. Bergqvist D, Burmark US, Flordal PA, et al. Low molecular weight heparin started before surgery as prophylaxis against deep vein thrombosis: 2500 versus 5000 Xal units in 2070 patients. Br J Surg. 1995;82:496-501.
57. Nurmohamed MT, Verhaege R, Haas S, et al. A comparative trial of a low molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin) versus standard heparin for the prophylaxis of postoperative deep vein thrombosis in general surgery. Am J Surg. 1995;169:567-571.
58. ENOXACAN Study Group. Efficacy and safety of enoxaparin versus unfractionated heparin for prevention of deep vein thrombosis in elective cancer surgery: a double-blind randomized multicentre trial with venographic assessment. Br J Surg. 1997;84:1099-1103.
59. Bergqvist D, Agnelli G, Cohen AT, et al. Duration of prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism with enoxaparin after surgery for cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:975-980.
60. Nurmohamed MT, van Riel AM, Henkens CM, et al. Low molecular weight heparin and compression stockings in the prevention of VTE in neurosurgery. Thromb Haemost. 1996;75:233-238.
61. Agnelli G, Piovella F, Buoncristiani P, et al. Enoxaparin plus compression stockings compared with compression stockings alone in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective neurosurgery. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:80-85.
62. Cerrato D, Ariano C, Fiacchino F, et al. Deep vein thrombosis and low-dose heparin prophylaxis in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg. 1978;49:378-381.
63. Dickinson LD, Miller LD, Patel CP, et al. Enoxaparin increases the incidence of postoperative intracranial hemorrhage when initiated preoperatively for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in patients with brain tumors. Neurosurgery. 1998;43:1074-1081.
64. Bick RL, Kaplan H. Syndromes of thrombosis and hypercoagulability: congenital and acquired causes of thrombosis. Med Clin North Am. 1998;82:409-458.
65. Enders JM, Burke J, Dobesh PP. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in acute medical illness. Pharmacotherapy. 2002;22:1564-1578.
66. Gallus AS, Hirsh J, Tuttle RJ, et al. Small subcutaneous doses of heparin in prevention of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1973;288:545-551.
67. Belch JJ, Lowe GDO, Ward AG, et al. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in medical patients by low-dose heparin. Scott Med J. 1981;26:115-117.
68. Ibarra-Perez C, Lau-Cortes E, Colmenero-Zubiate N, et al. Prevalence and prevention of deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremities in high-risk pulmonary patients. Angiology. 1988;39:505-513.
69. Halkin H, Goldberg J, Modan M, Modan B. Reduction of mortality in general medical in-patients by low-dose heparin prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96:561-565.
70. Cade JF. High risk of the critically ill for venous thromboembolism. Crit Care Med. 1982;10:448-450.
71. Gardlund B. Randomised, controlled trial of low-dose heparin for prevention of fatal pulmonary embolism in patients with infectious diseases. Lancet. 1996;347:1357-1361.
72. Glagett GP, Reisch JS. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in general surgical patients: results of meta-analysis. Ann Surg. 1988;208:227-240.
73. Kakkar W, Corrigan T, Spindler J, et al. Efficacy of low doses of heparin in prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after major surgery: a double-blind, randomized trial. N Engl J Med. 1972;2:101-106.
74. Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon J-Y, et al. A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:793-800.
75. Leizorovicz A, Goldhaber SZ, eds. Prospective evaluation of dalteparin efficacy in immobilized patients trial (the PREVENT trial). Presented at: the Society of Critical Care Medicine 32nd Annual Critical Care Congress; January 2003; San Antonio, Tex.
76. Cohen AT, Davidson B, Gallus A, Lassen MR, Tomkowski W, Turpie AG, eds. Arixtra for thromboembolism prevention in a medical indications study (The ARTEMIS study). Presented at: the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis; July 2003; Birmingham, UK.
77. Bergmann JF, Neuhart E. A multicenter randomized double-blind study of enoxaparin compared with unfractionated heparin in the prevention of venous thromboembolic disease in elderly in-patients bedridden for an acute medical illness. Thromb Haemost. 1996;76:529-534.
78. Lechler E, Schramm W, Flosbach CW, PRIME Study Group. The venous thrombotic risk in non-surgical patients: epidemiological data and efficacy/safety profile of a low-molecular weight heparin (enoxaparin). Haemostasis. 1996;26(suppl 2):49-56.
79. Kleber FX, Witt C, Vogel G, Kopppenhagen K, Schomaker U, Flosbach CW. Randomized comparison of enoxaparin with unfractionated heparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in medical patients with heart failure or severe respiratory disease. Am Heart J. 2003;145:614-621.
80. Harenberg J, Schomaker U, Flosbach CW. Enoxaparin is superior to unfractionated heparin in the prevention of venous thromboembolic events in medical patients at increased thromboembolic risk [abstract]. Blood. 1999;94(suppl 1):399a.
81. Hillborn M, Erila T, Sotaniemi K, et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of the low-molecular-weight heparin enoxaparin with unfractionated heparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in patients with acute ischemic stroke [abstract]. Blood. 1999;94(suppl 1):183a.
82. Wells PS, Lensing AWA, Davidson BL, Prins MH, Hirsh J. Accuracy of ultrasound for the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis in asymptomatic patients after orthopedic surgery: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:47-53.
83. Davidson BL, Elliot CG, Lensing AWA. Low accuracy of color Doppler ultrasound in the detection of proximal leg vein thrombosis in asymptomatic high risk patients. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:735-738.
84. Rose SC, Zwiebel WJ, Murdock LE, et al. Insensitivity of color Doppler flow imaging for detection of acute calf deep venous thrombosis in asymptomatic postoperative patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 1993;4:111-117.
85. Aquino JP, Gambier A, Ducros J. Prevention of thromboembolic accidents in elderly subjects with Fraxiparine. In: Bounameaux H, Samama MM, Ten Cate JW, eds. Fraxiaparine: 2nd International Symposium. Recent Pharmacological and Clinical Data. Stutgart, NY: Schattauer; 1990:51-54.
86. Harenberg J, Kallenabch B, Martin U, et al. Randomised controlled study of heparin and low molecular weight heparin for prevention of deep-vein thrombosis in medical patients. Thromb Res. 1990;59:639-650.
87. Forette B, Wolmark Y. Calcium nadroparin in the prevention of thromboembolic disease in elderly subjects: study of tolerance. Presse Med. 1995;24:567-571.
88. Harenberg J, Roebruck P, Heene DL. Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin versus standard heparin and the prevention of thromboembolism in medical patients. The Heparin Study in Internal Medicine (HESIM) Group. Haemostasis. 1996;26:127-139.
89. Manciet G, Vergnes C, Vaissie JJ, Boisseau MR. Etude de l'efficacite et de la tolerance de Fraxiparine administree au long cours chez le sujet age: etude randomisee en double insu (APTE). Stuttgart, NY: Schattauer; 1990:55-59.
90. Carter CJ. Epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. In: Hull RD, Pineo GF, eds. Disorders of Thrombosis. Philadelphia, Pa: W. B. Saunders; 1996:159-174.
91. American Heart Association. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: 2004 Update. Dallas, Tex: American Heart Association; 2003.
92. Golhaber SZ, Dunn K, MacDougall RC. New onset of venous thromboembolism among hospitalized patients at Brigham and Women's Hospital is caused more often by prophylaxis failure than by withholding treatment. Chest. 2000;118:1680-1684.
93. Birdwell BG, Raskob GE, Whitsett TL, et al. The clinical validity of normal compression ultrasonography in outpatients suspected of having deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:1-7.
94. Huisman MV, Buller HR, Ten Cate JW, Vreeken J. Serial impedance plethysmography for suspected deep-vein thrombosis in outpatients. The Amsterdam General Practitioner Study. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:823-828.
95. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Sackett DL, et al. Clinical validity of a negative venogram in patients with clinically suspected venous thrombosis. Circulation. 1981;64:622-625.
96. Lensing AW, Buller HR, Prandoni P, et al. Contrast venography, the gold standard for the diagnosis of deep-vein thrombosis: improvement in observer agreement. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:8-12.
97. Tapson VF, Carroll BA, Davidson BL, et al. The diagnostic approach to acute venous thromboembolism: clinical practice guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1043-1066.
98. Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, et al. Evaluation of D-dimer in the diagnosis of suspected deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1227-1235.
99. Kelly J, Hunt B. A clinical probability assessment and D-dimer measurement should be the initial step in the investigation of suspected venous thromboembolism. Chest. 2003;124:1116-1119.
100. Hyers TM, Agnelli G, Hull R, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Chest. 2001;119:176S-193S.
101. Weitz JI. Low-molecular weight heparins. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:688-699.
102. Brill-Edwards P, Ginsberg JS, Johnston M, Hirsh J. Establishing a therapeutic range for heparin therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:104-109.
103. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Hirsh J, et al. Continuous intravenous heparin compared with intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1485-1489.
104. Brandjes DPM, Heijboer H, Büller HR, et al. Acenocoumarol and heparin compared with acenocoumarol alone in the initial treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1485-1489.
105. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Brant RF, et al. The importance of initial heparin treatment on long-term clinical outcomes of antithrombotic therapy: the emerging theme of delayed recurrence. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2317-2321.
106. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Brant RF, et al. Relation between the time to achieve the lower limit of the APTT therapeutic range and recurrent venous thromboembolism during heparin treatment for deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2562-2568.
107. Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared wit a "standard care" nomogram. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:874-881.
108. Hylek EM, Regan S, Henault LE, et al. Challenges to the effective use of unfractionated heparin in the hospitalized management of acute thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:621-627.
109. Dolovich LR, Ginsberg JS, Douketis JD, et al. A meta-analysis comparing low-molecular-weight heparins with unfractionated heparin in the treatment of venous thromboembolism: examining some unanswered questions regarding location of treatment, product type, and dosing frequency. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:181-188.
110. Kanter DS, Mikkola KM, Patel SR, et al. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism: frequency of intracranial hemorrhage and associated risk factors. Chest. 1997;111:1241-1245.
111. Thabut G, Thabut D, Myers RP, et al. Thrombolytic therapy of pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:1660-1667.
112. Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit J, et al. Randomised controlled trial of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus urokinase in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1988;8606:293-298.
113. Goldhaber SZ, Kessler CM, Heit JA, et al. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator versus a novel dosing regimen of urokinase in acute pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled multicenter trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;20:24-30.
114. Levine M, Gent M, Hirsh J, et al. A comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin administered primarily at home with unfractionated heparin administrated in the hospital for proximal deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:677-681.
115. Koopman MM, Crandom P, Piovella F, et al. Treatment of venous thrombosis with intravenous unfractionated heparin administered in the hospital as compared with subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin administered at home. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:682-687.
116. Harrison L, McGinnis J, Crowther M, et al. Assessment of outpatient treatment of deep-vein thrombosis with low-molecular-weight heparin. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:2001-2003.
117. Wells PS, Kovacs MJ, Bormanis J, et al. Expanding eligibility for outpatient treatment of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism with low-molecular-weight heparin: a comparison of patient self-injection with homecare injection. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:1809-1812.
118. Dunn AS, Schechter C, Gotlin A, et al. Outpatient treatment of deep venous thrombosis in diverse inner-city patients. Am J Med. 2001;110:458-462.
119. Simonneau G, Sors H, Charbonnier B, et al. A comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin with unfractionated heparin for acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:663-669.
120. Kovacs MJ, Anderson D, Morrow B, et al. Outpatient treatment of pulmonary embolism with dalteparin. Thromb Haemost. 2000;83:209-211.
121. O'Reilly RA, Aggler PM, Leong LS. Studies on coumarin anticoagulant drugs: pharmacodynamics of warfarin in man. J Clin Invest. 1963;42:1542-1557.
122. Hull R, Delmore T, Genton E, et al. Warfarin sodium versus low-dose heparin in the long-term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1979;301:855-858.
123. Hull R, Delmore T, Carter C, et al. Adjusted subcutaneous heparin versus warfarin sodium in the long-term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;306:189-194.
124. Kovasc M, Rodger M, Anderson DR, et al. Comparison of 10-mg and 5-mg warfarin initiation nomograms together with low-molecular-weight heparin for outpatient treatment of acute venous thromboembolism. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:714-719.
125. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Brandt RF, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin vs heparin in the treatment of patients with pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:229-236.
126. Gallus A, Jackaman J, Tillett J, et al. Safety and efficacy of warfarin started early after submassive venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1986;2:1293-1296.
127. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Rosenbloom D, et al. Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1260-1264.
128. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Jay R, et al. Different intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of proximal vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:1676-1681.
129. Ridker PM, Goldhaber SZ, Danielson E, et al. Long-term, low-intensity warfarin therapy for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1425-1434.
130. Kearon C, Ginsberg JS, Kovacs MJ, et al. Comparison of low-intensity warfarin therapy with conventional-intensity warfarin therapy for long-term prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:631-639.
131. Fitzmaurice DA, Hobbs FD, Murray ET, et al. Oral anticoagulation management in primary care with the use of computerized decision support and near-patient testing: a randomized, controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2343-2348.
132. Wilson SJ, Wells PS, Kovacs MJ, et al. Comparing the quality of oral anticoagulant management by anticoagulation clinics and by family physicians: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2003;169:293-298.
133. Chiquette E, Amato MG, Bussey HI. Comparison of an anticoagulation clinic with usual medical care. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:1641-1647.
134. Cromheecke ME, Levi M, Colly LP, et al. Oral anticoagulation self-management and management by a specialist anticoagulation clinic: a randomised cross-over comparison. Lancet. 2000;356:97-102.
135. Huisman MV, on behalf of the THRIVE Treatment Study Investigators. Efficacy and safety of the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran for acute deep vein thrombosis with or without pulmonary embolism. Program and Abstracts of the XIX Congress of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis. Birmingham, UK; July 12-18, 2003. Abstract OC003.
136. Schulman S, Wshlander K, Torbjorn L, et al. Secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism with the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1713-1721.
137. The Matisse Investigators. Subcutaneous fondaparinux versus intravenous unfractionated heparin in the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1695-1702.
138. The Rembrandt Investigators. Treatment of proximal deep vein thrombosis with a novel synthetic compound (SR90107A/ORG31540) with pure anti-factor Xa activity. Circulation. 2000;102:2726-2731.