Management of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A statement for healthcare professionals

Circulation

Volumn 93, Issue 12, 1996, Pages 2212-2245

  Hirsh, Jack ^a   Hoak, John ^a  

^a AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERFERON; ANAGRELIDE; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; HEPARIN; HYDROXYUREA; WARFARIN;

ANTICOAGULATION; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; BLEEDING; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DRUG MONITORING; EMBRYOPATHY; HEPARINIZATION; HUMAN; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; LUNG EMBOLISM; MYELOPROLIFERATIVE DISORDER; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SKIN NECROSIS; SUBCUTANEOUS DRUG ADMINISTRATION; THROMBOPHILIA; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; TREATMENT INDICATION;

EID: 0029888319     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.93.12.2212     Document Type: Review

References (451)

1. Hume M, Sevitt S, Thomas DP. Mechanisms of venous thromboembolism. In: Hume M, Sevitt S, Thomas DP, eds. Venous Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press; 1970:85-114.
2. Coon WW, Willis PW III, Keller JB. Venous thromboembolism and other venous disease in the Tecumseh community health study. Circulation. 1973;48:839-846.
3. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, Jay RM, Dodd PE, Ockelford PA, Coates G, Gill GJ, Turpie AGG, Doyle DJ, Buller HR, Raskob GE. Pulmonary angiography, ventilation lung scanning, and venography for clinically suspected pulmonary embolism with abnormal perfusion lung scan. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98:891-899.
4. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, Jay RM, Ockelford PA, Buller HR, Turpie AGG, Powers P, Kinch D, Dodd PE, Gill GJ, Leclerc JR, Gent M. Diagnostic efficacy of impedance plethysmography for clinically suspected deep-vein thrombosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1985;102:21-28.
5. Rubinstein I, Murray D, Hoffstein V. Fatal pulmonary emboli in hospitalized patients: an autopsy study. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148: 1425-1426.
6. Dalen JE, Alpert JS. Natural history of pulmonary embolism. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1975;17:259-270.
7. Bell WR, Simon TL. Current status of pulmonary thromboembolic disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. Am Heart J. 1982;103:239-262.
8. Kaunitz AM, Hughes JM, Grimes DA, Smith JC, Rochat RW, Kafrissen ME. Causes of maternal mortality in the United States. Obstet Gynecol. 1985;65:605-612.
9. Freiman DG. The structure of thrombi. In: Colman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, Salzman EW, eds. Thrombosis and Hemostasis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott; 1987:1123-1135.
10. Kakkar VV, Howe CT, Flanc C, Clarke MB. Natural history of postoperative deep vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1969;2:230-232.
11. Nicolaides AN, Kakkar VV, Field ES, Renney JT. The origin of deep vein thrombosis: a venographic study. Br J Radiol. 1971;44: 653-663.
12. Stamatakis JD, Kakkar VV, Sagar S, Lawrence D, Nairn D, Bentley PG. Femoral vein thrombosis and total hip replacement. Br Med J. 1977;2:223-225.
13. Hirsh J, Genton E. Thrombogenesis. In: Root WS, Hofman FG, eds. Physiological Pharmacology: A Comprehensive Treatise. New York, NY: Academic Press Inc; 1974:99-133.
14. Wessler S, Yin ET. On the mechanism of thrombosis. Prog Hematol. 1969;6:201-232.
15. Davies GS, Salzman EW. The pathogenesis of deep vein thrombosis. In: Joist HJ, Sherman LA, eds. Venous and Arterial Thrombosis: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Therapy. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton; 1979:1-22.
16. Borgstrom S, Gelin LE, Zenderfeld B. The formation of vein thrombi following tissue injury. Acta Chir Scand Suppl. 1959;247: 1-36.
17. Moschos CB, Khan MI, Regan TJ. Thrombogenic properties of blood during early ischemic and nonischemic injury. Am J Physiol. 1971;220:1882-1884.
18. Bjorklid E, Giercksky KE, Prydz H. An immunoradiometric assay for factor III (tissue thromboplastin). Br J Haematol. 1978;39: 445-458.
19. Kisiel W, Canfield WM, Ericsson LH, Davie EW. Anticoagulant properties of bovine plasma protein C following activation by thrombin. Biochemistry. 1977;16:5824-5831.
20. Harpel PC, Rosenberg RD. Alpha 2-macroglobulin and antithrombin-heparin cofactor: modulators of hemostatic and inflammatory reactions. Prog Hemost Thromb. 1976;3:145-189.
21. Rosenberg RD. Hypercoagulability and methods for monitoring anticoagulant therapy. In: Fratantoni J, Wessler S, eds. Prophylactic Therapy of Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism Proceedings of a Conference. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health; 1975. US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare Publication NIH 76-866.
22. Marlar RA, Kleiss AJ, Griffin JH. Human protein C: inactivation of factors V and VIII in plasma by the activated molecule. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1981;370:303-310.
23. Deykin D, Cochios F, DeCamp G, Lopez A. Hepatic removal of activated factor X by the perfused rabbit liver. Am J Physiol. 1968; 214:414-419.
24. Lee L. Reticuloendothelial clearance of circulating fibrin in the pathogenesis of the generalized Shwartzman reaction. J Exp Med. 1962;115:1065-1082.
25. Collen D. On the regulation and control of fibrinolysis: Edward Kowalski Memorial Lecture. Thromb Haemost. 1980;43:77-89.
26. Gallus AS, Hirsh J. Treatment of venous thromboembolic disease. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1976;2:291-331.
27. Browse NL, Thomas ML. Source of non-lethal pulmonary emboli. Lancet. 1974;1:258-259.
28. Browse NL, Clemenson G, Croft DN. Fibrinogen-detectable thrombosis in the legs and pulmonary embolism. Br Med J. 1974; 1:603-604.
29. Plate G, Ohlin P, Eklof B. Pulmonary embolism in acute iliofemoral venous thrombosis. Br J Surg. 1985;72:912-915.
30. Corrigan TP, Fossard DP, Spindler J, Armstrong P, Strachan CJ, Johnston KW, Kakkar VV. Phlebography in the management of pulmonary embolism. Br J Surg. 1974;61:484-488.
31. Shull KC, Nicolaides AN, Fernandes e Fernandes J, Miles C, Horner J, Needham T, Cooke ED, Eastcott FH. Significance of popliteal reflux in relation to ambulatory venous pressure and ulceration. Arch Surg. 1979;114:1304-1306.
32. Kakkar VV, Howe CT, Nicolaides AN, Renney JT, Clarke MB. Deep vein thrombosis of the leg: is there a high risk group? Am J Surg. 1970;120:527-530.
33. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Cogo A, Cuppini S, Villalta S, Carta M, Cattelan AM, Polistena P, Bernardi E, Prins MH. The long-term clinical course of acute deep-vein thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. In press.
34. Zilliacus H. On the specific treatment of thrombosis and pulmonary embolism with anticoagulants, with a particular reference to the post thrombotic sequelae. Acta Med Scand. 1946;170:1-221.
35. Huisman MV, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, Vreeken J. Serial impedance plethysmography for suspected deep vein thrombosis in outpatients: the Amsterdam General Practitioner Study. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:823-828.
36. Hull R, Delmore T, Carter C, Hirsh J, Genton E, Gent M, Turpie AGG, McLoughlin D. Adjusted subcutaneous heparin vs warfarin sodium in the long-term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;306:189-194.
37. Hull R, Hirsh J, Jay RM, Carter C, England C, Gent M, Turpie AGG, McLoughlin D, Dodd P, Thomas M, Raskob G, Ockelford P. Different intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;307: 1676-1681.
38. Hull R, Delmore T, Genton E, Hirsh J, Gent M, Sackett D, McLoughlin D, Armstrong P. Warfarin sodium versus low-dose heparin in the long-term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1979;301:855-858.
39. Salzman EW, Deykin D, Shapiro RM, Rosenberg R. Management of heparin therapy: controlled prospective trial. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:1046-1050.
40. Glazier RL, Crowell EB. Randomized prospective trial of continuous vs intermittent heparin therapy. JAMA. 1976;236: 1365-1367.
41. Basu D, Gallus A, Hirsh J, Cade J. A prospective study of the value of monitoring heparin treatment with the activated partial thromboplastin time. N Engl J Med. 1972;287:324-327.
42. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Buller HR, Carta M, Cogo A, Vigo AM, Casara D, Ruol A, ten Cate JW. Comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin with intravenous standard heparin in proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1992;339: 441-445.
43. Brandjes DPM, Heijboer H, de Rijk M, Jagt J, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, Huisman MV. The effect of graded compression stockings on the development of the post-thrombotic syndrome in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65(suppl):1131. Abstract.
44. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Buller HR, Cogo A, Prins MH, Cattelan AM, Cuppini S, Noventa F, ten Cate JW. Deep-vein thrombosis and the incidence of subsequent symptomatic cancer. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1128-1133.
45. Hirsh J. The optimal duration of anticoagulant therapy for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1710-1711.
46. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, Turpie AGG, Weitz J, Ginsberg J, Geerts W, Leclerc J, Neemeh J, Powers P, Piovella F. Optimal duration of oral anticoagulant therapy: a randomized trial comparing four weeks with three months of warfarin in patients with proximal deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1995;74: 606-611.
47. Optimum duration of anticoagulation for deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1992;340:873-876.
48. Hull RD, Carter CJ, Jay RM, Ockelford PA, Hirsh J, Turpie AGG, Zielinsky A, Gent M, Powers PJ. The diagnosis of acute, recurrent, deep-vein thrombosis: a diagnostic challenge. Circulation. 1983;67:901-906.
49. O'Donnell TF, Browse NL, Burnand KG, et al. The socioeconomic effects of iliofemoral venous thrombosis. J Surg Res. 1977;22:483-488.
50. Cockett FB, Thomas ML, Negus D. Iliac vein compression: its relation to iliofemoral thrombosis and the post-thrombotic syndrome. Br Med J. 1967;2:14-19.
51. Negus D. The post-thrombotic syndrome. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1970;47:92-105.
52. Jay R, Hull R, Carter C, Ockelford P, Buller H, Turpie AGG, Hirsh J. Outcome of abnormal impedance plethysmography results in patients with proximal-vein thrombosis: frequency of return to normal. Thromb Res. 1984;36:259-263.
53. Strandness DE Jr, Langlois T, Cramer M, Randlett A, Thiele BL. Long-term sequelae of acute venous thrombosis. JAMA. 1983;250: 1289-1292.
54. Gjores JE. The incidence of venous thrombosis and its sequelae in certain districts in Sweden. Acta Chir Scand. 1956;206:11-88.
55. Lensing AWA, Hirsh J. Rationale and results of thrombolytic therapy for deep vein thrombosis. In: Bernstein EF, ed. Vascular Diagnosis. St Louis, Mo: Mosby-Year Book, Inc; 1993:875-879.
56. da Silva A, Widmer LK, Martin H, Mall T, Glaus L, Schneider M. Varicose veins and chronic venous insufficiency. Vasa. 1974;3: 118-125.
57. Ginsberg JS, Shin A, Turpie AGG, Hirsh J. Detection of previous proximal venous thrombosis with Doppler ultrasonography and photoplethysmography. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:2255-2257.
58. Fernandes JF, Horner J, Needham T, Nicolaides A. Ambulatory calf volume plethysmography in the assessment of venous insufficiency. Br J Surg. 1979;66:327-330.
59. Li J-M, Anderson FA, Wheeler HB. Noninvasive testing for venous reflux using photoplethysmography: standardization of technique and evaluation of interpretation criteria. Bruit. 1983;7:25.
60. Gallus AS, Salzman EW, Hirsh J. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. In: Colman RW, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, Salzman EW, eds. Haemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott; 1994:1331-1345.
61. Salzman EW, Davies GC. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism: analysis of cost effectiveness. Ann Surg. 1980;191:207-218.
62. Collins R, Scrimgeour A, Yusuf S, Peto R. Reduction in fatal pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis by perioperative administration of subcutaneous heparin: overview of results of randomized trials in general, orthopedic, and urologie surgery. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:1162-1173.
63. Leyvraz PF, Richard J, Bachmann F, Van Meile G, Treyvaud JM, Livio JJ, Candardjis G. Adjusted versus fixed-dose subcutaneous heparin in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis after total hip replacement. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:954-958.
64. Turpie AGG, Hirsh J, Gent M, Julian D, Johnson J. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in potential neurosurgical patients: a randomized trial comparing graduated compression stockings alone or graduated compression stockings plus intermittent pneumatic compression with control. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:679-681.
65. Hirsh J, Levine MN. Low molecular weight heparin. Blood. 1992; 79:1-77.
66. Anderson DR, O'Brien BJ, Levine MN, Roberts R, Wells PS, Hirsh J. Efficacy and cost of low-molecular-weight heparin compared with standard heparin for the prevention of deep vein thrombosis after total hip arthroplasty. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119: 1105-1112.
67. Hull R, Delmore TJ, Hirsh J, Gent M, Armstrong P, Lofthouse R, MacMillan A, Blackstone I, Reed-Davis R, Detwiler RC. Effectiveness of intermittent pulsatile elastic stockings for the prevention of calf and thigh vein thrombosis in patients undergoing elective knee surgery. Thromb Res. 1979;16:37-45.
68. Wille-Jorgensen P, Thorup J, Fischer A, Holst-Christensen J, Flamsholt R. Heparin with and without graded compression stockings in the prevention of thromboembolic complications of major abdominal surgery: a randomized trial. Br J Surg. 1985;72: 579-581.
69. Wille-Jorgensen P, Christense BW, Bjerg-Nielsen A, Stadeager C, Kjaer L. Prevention of thromboembolism following elective hip surgery: the value of regional anesthesia and graded compression stockings. Clin Orthop. 1989;247:163-167.
70. Powers PJ, Gent M, Jay RM, Julian DH, Turpie AGG, Levine M, Hirsh J. A randomized trial of less intense postoperative warfarin or aspirin therapy in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after surgery for fractured hip. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:771-774.
71. Leyvraz PF, Bachmann F, Hoek J, Buller HR, Postel M, Samama M. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement: randomised comparison between unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin. BMJ. 1991;303:543-548.
72. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Pineo G, Rosenbloom D, Evans W, Mallory T, Anquist K, Smith F, Hughes G, Green D, Elliott G, Panju A, Brant R. A comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin with warfarin sodium for prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis after hip or knee implantation. N Engl J Med. 1993; 329:1370-1376.
73. McLachlin J, Richards T, Paterson JC. An evaluation of clinical signs in the diagnosis of venous thrombosis. Arch Surg. 1962;85: 738-744.
74. Haeger K. Problems of acute deep venous thrombosis, I: the interpretation of signs and symptoms. Angiology. 1969;20:219-223.
75. Johnston KW, Kakkar VV. Plethysmographic diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1974;139:41-44.
76. Hull RD, Raskob GE, LeClerc JR, Jay RM, Hirsh J. The diagnosis of clinically suspected venous thrombosis. Clin Chest Med. 1984;5: 439-456.
77. Büller HR, Lensing AWA, Hirsh J, ten Cate JW. Deep venous thrombosis: new noninvasive tests. Thromb Haemost. 1991;66: 133-137.
78. Cogo A, Lensing AWA, Prandoni P, Hirsh J. Distribution of thrombosis in patients with deep-vein thrombosis; implications for simplifying the diagnostic process with compression ultrasound. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:2777-2780.
79. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Sackett DL, Taylor DW, Carter C, Turpie AGG, Powers P, Gent M. Clinical validity of a negative venogram in patients with clinically suspected venous thrombosis. Circulation. 1981;64:622-625.
80. Wells PS, Hirsh J, Anderson DR, Lensing AWA, Foster G, Kearon C, Weitz J, D'Ovidio R, Cogo A, Prandoni P, Girolami A, Ginsberg JS. Accuracy of clnical assessment of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1995;345:1326-1330.
81. Thomas ML. Phlebography. Arch Surg. 1972;104:145-151.
82. Rabinov K, Paulin S. Roentgen diagnosis of venous thrombosis in the leg. Arch Surg. 1972;104:134-144.
83. Lensing AWA, Buller HR, Prandoni P, Batchelor D, Molenaar AH, Cogo A, Vigo M, Huisman PM, ten Cate JW. Contrast venography, the gold standard for the diagnosis of deep-vein thrombosis: improvement in observer agreement. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:8-12.
84. Hull R, van Aken WG, Hirsh J, Gallus AS, Hoicka G, Turpie AGG, Walker I, Gent M. Impedance plethysmography using the occlusive cuff technique in the diagnosis of venous thrombosis. Circulation. 1976;53:696-700.
85. Huisman MV, Buller HR, ten Cate JW, Heijermans HSF, van der Laan J, van Maanen DJ. Management of clinically suspected acute venous thrombosis in outpatients with serial impedance plethysmography in a community hospital setting. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:511-513.
86. Wheeler HB, O'Donnell JA, Anderson FA Jr, Penney BC, Peura RA, Benedict C Jr. Bedside screening for venous thrombosis using occlusive impedance phlebography. Angiology. 1975;26:199-210.
87. Wheeler HB, Pearson D, O'Connell D, Mullick SC. Impedance phlebography: technique, interpretation, and results. Arch Surg 1972;104:164-169.
88. Peters SHA, Jonker JJC, de Boer AC, den Ottolander GJ. Home-diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis with impedance plethysmography. Thromb Haemost. 1982;48:297-300.
89. Wheeler HB, Anderson FA Jr, Cardullo PA, Patwardhan NA, Jian-Ming L, Cutler BS. Suspected deep-vein thrombosis: management by impedance plethysmography. Arch Surg. 1982;117: 1206-1209.
90. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Carter CJ. Serial impedance plethysmography in pregnant patients with clinically suspected deep-vein thrombosis: clinical validity of negative findings. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:663-667.
91. Foley WD, Middleton WD, Lawson TL, Erickson S, Quiroz FA, Macrander S. Color Doppler ultrasound imaging of lower-extremity venous disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1989;152:371-376
92. Rose SC, Zwiebel WJ, Nelson BD, Priest DL, Knighton RA, Brown JW, Lawrence PF, Stults BM, Reading JC, Miller FJ. Symptomatic lower extremity deep venous thrombosis: accuracy, limitations, and role of color duplex flow imaging in diagnosis. Radiology. 1990;175:639-644.
93. Baxter GM, McKechnie S, Duffy P. Colour Doppler ultrasound in deep venous thrombosis: a comparison with venography. Clin Radiol. 1990;42:32-36.
94. Raghavendra BN, Rosen RJ, Lam S, Riles T, Horii SC. Deep venous thrombosis: detection by high-resolution real-time ultrasonography. Radiology. 1984;152:789-793.
95. Elias A, Le Corff G, Bouvier JL, Benichou M, Serradimgni A. Value of real time B mode ultrasound imaging in the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis of the lower limbs. Int Angiol. 1987;6: 175-182.
96. Vogel P, Laing FC, Jeffrey RB Jr, Wing VW. Deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremity: US evaluation. Radiology. 1987; 163:747-751.
97. Cronan JJ, Dorfman GS, Scola FH, Schepps B, Alexander J. Deep venous thrombosis: US assessment using vein compression. Radiology. 1987;162:191-194.
98. Monreal M, Montserrat E, Salvador R, Bechini J, Donoso L, MaCallejas J, Foz M. Real-time ultrasound for diagnosis of symptomatic venous thrombosis and for screening of patients at risk: correlation with ascending conventional venography. Angiology. 1989;40:527-533.
99. Lensing AWA, Prandoni P, Brandjes D, Huisman PM, Vigo M, Tomasella G, Krekt J, ten Cate JW, Huisman MV, Buller HR. Detection of deep-vein thrombosis by real-time B-mode ultrasonography. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:342-345.
100. Comerota AJ, Katz ML, Greenwald LL, Leefmans E, Czeredarczuk M, White JV. Venous duplex imaging; should it replace hemodynamic tests for deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 1990; 11:53-61.
101. Habscheid W, Hohmann M, Wilhelm T, Epping J. Real-time ultrasound in the diagnosis of acute deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremity. Angiology. 1990;41:599-608.
102. Dauzat MM, Laroche JP, Charras C, Blin B, Domingo-Faye MM, Sainte-Luce P, Domergue A, Lopez FM, Janbon C. Real-time B-mode ultrasonography for better specificity in the noninvasive diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. J Ultrasound Med. 1986;5: 625-631.
103. Schindler JM, Kaiser M, Gerber A, Vuilliomenet A, Popovic A, Bertel O. Colour coded duplex sonography in suspected deep vein thrombosis of the leg. BMJ. 1990;301:1369-1370.
104. Persson AV, Jones C, Zide R, Jewell ER. Use of the triplex scanner in diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. Arch Surg. 1989; 124:593-596.
105. Sumner DS, Londrey GL, Spadone DP, Hodgson KJ, Leutz DW, Stauffer ES. Study of deep venous thrombosis in high-risk patients using color flow Doppler. In: Bergan JJ, Yao JST, eds. Venous Disorders. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1991:63-76.
106. Wells PS, Brill-Edwards P, Stevens P, Panju A, Patel A, Douketis J, Massicotte MP, Hirsh J, Weitz JI, Kearon C, et al. A novel and rapid whole-blood assay for D-dimer in patients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis. Circulation. 1995;91:2184-2187.
107. Mattos MA, Londrey GL, Leutz DW, Hodgson KJ, Ramsey DE, Barkmeier LD, Stauffer ES, Spadone DP, Sumner DS. Color-flow duplex scanning for the surveillance and diagnosis of acute deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 1992;15:366-375.
108. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Buller HR, Carta M, Vigo M, Cogo A, Cuppini S, ten Cate JW. Failure of computerized impedance plethsmography in the diagnostic management of patients with clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1991; 65:233-236.
109. Hirsh J. Reliability of non-invasive tests for the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65:221-222.
110. Anderson DR, Lensing AWA, Wells PS, Levine MN, Weitz JI, Hirsh J. Limitations of impedance plethysmography in the diagnosis of clinically suspected deep-vein thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118:25-30.
111. Heijboer H, Brandjes D, Lensing AWA, Buller HR, ten Cate JW. Efficacy of real-time B-mode ultrasonography versus impedance plethysmography in the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis in symptomatic outpatients. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65:804. Abstract.
112. Prandoni P, Cogo A, Bernardi E, Villalta S, Polistena P, Simioni P, Noventa F, Benedetti L, Girolami A. A simple ultrasound approach for detection of recurrent proximal-vein thrombosis. Circulation. 1993;88(pt 1):1730-1735.
113. Huisman MV, Büller HR, ten Cate JW. Utility of impedance plethysmography in the diagnosis of recurrent deep-vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:681-683.
114. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Carta M, Cogo A, Villalta S, Ruol A. Elastic compression stockings and the postphlebitic syndrome: an interim analysis of a prospective cohort study in patients with proximal vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65:1579. Abstract.
115. Common HH, Seaman AJ, Rosch J, Porter CT, Dotter CT. Deep vein thrombosis treated with streptokinase or heparin: follow-up of a randomized study. Angiology. 1976;27:645-654.
116. Strandness DE Jr, Langlois Y, Cramer M, Randlett A, Thiele BL. Long-term sequelae of acute venous thrombosis. JAMA. 1983;250: 1289-1292.
117. Cronan JJ, Leen V. Recurrent deep venous thrombosis: limitations of US. Radiology. 1989;170(pt 1):739-742.
118. Heijboer H, Jongbloets LMM, Buller HR, Lensing AW, ten Cate JW. Clinical utility of real-time compression ultrasonography for diagnostic management of patients with recurrent venous thrombosis. Acta Radiol Scand. 1992;33:297-300.
119. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Carter CJ, Coates G, Gill GJ, Sackett DL, Hirsh J, Thompson M. Pulmonary embolism in outpatients with pleuritic chest pain. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:838-844.
120. The urokinase pulmonary embolism trial: a national cooperative study. Circulation. 1973;47(suppl 2):1-108.
121. Bell WR, Simon TL, DeMets DL. The clinical features of submassive and massive pulmonary emboli. Am J Med. 1977;62: 355-360.
122. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, Raskob GE, Gill GJ, Jay RM, Leclerc JR, David M, Coates G. Diagnostic value of ventilation-perfusion lung scanning in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Chest. 1985;88:819-828.
123. Stein PD, Willis PW III, DeMets DL. History and physical examination in acute pulmonary embolism in patients without preexisting cardiac or pulmonary disease. Am J Cardiol. 1981;47: 218-223.
124. Dalen JE, Grossman W. Profiles in pulmonary embolism. In: Grossman W, ed. Cardiac Cathelerization and Angiography. Philadelphia, Pa: Lea & Febiger; 1980:336-345.
125. Bell WR, Simon TL. A comparative analysis of pulmonary perfusion scans with pulmonary angiograms. Am Heart J. 1976;92: 700-706.
126. The PIOPED Investigators. Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism: results of the prospective investigation of pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PIOPED). JAMA. 1990;263:2753-2759.
127. Bookstein JJ, Silver TM. The angiographic differential diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism. Radiology. 1974;110:25-33.
128. Novelline RA, Baltarowich OH, Athanasoulis CA, Waltman AC, Greenfield AJ, McKusick KA. The clinical course of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism and a negative pulmonary arteriogram. Radiology. 1978;126:561-567.
129. Bookstein JJ. Segmental arteriography by pulmonary embolism. Radiology. 1969;93:1007-1012.
130. Grollman JH Jr, Gyepes MT, Helmer E. Transfemoral selective bilateral pulmonary arteriography with a pulmonary-artery-seeking catheter. Radiology. 1970;96:202-204.
131. Meyerovitz MF, Levin DC, Harrington DP, Boxt LM, Bettmann MA, Garnie JD, Barry WH, Geller SC. Evaluation of optimized biplane pulmonary cineangiography. Invest Radiol. 1985;20: 945-949.
132. Stein PD, Athanasoulis C, Alavi A, Greenspan RH, Hales CA, Salzman HA, Vreim CE, Terrin ML, Weg JG. Complications and validity of pulmonary angiography in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1982;85:462-468.
133. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Coates G, Panju AA. Clinical validity of a normal perfusion lung scan in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Chest. 1990;97:23-26.
134. Kipper MS, Moser KM, Kortman KE, Ashburn WL. Longterm follow-up of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism and a normal lung scan: perfusion scans in embolic suspects. Chest. 1982; 82:411-415.
135. Szucs MM Jr, Brooks HL, Grossman W, Banas JS Jr, Meister G, Dexter L, Dalen JE. Diagnostic sensitivity of laboratory findings in acute pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 1971;74:161-166.
136. Weber DM, Phillips JH Jr. A re-evaluation of electrocardiographic changes accompanying acute pulmonary embolism. Am J Med Sci. 1966;251:381-398.
137. McNeil BJ. Ventilation-perfusion studies and the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: concise communication. J Nucl Med. 1980; 21:319-323.
138. Biello DR, Mattar AG, McKnight RC, Siegel BA. Ventilation-perfusion studies in suspected pulmonary embolism. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1979;133:1033-1037.
139. 133Xe ventilation studies in the scintigraphic detection of pulmonary embolism. Radiology. 1976;120:633-640.
140. Cheely R, McCartney WH, Perry JR, Delany DJ, Bustad L, Wynia VH, Griggs TR. The role of noninvasive tests versus pulmonary angiography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Am J Med. 1981;70:17-22.
141. Weitz JI, Hudoba M, Massel D, Maraganore J, Hirsh J. Clot-bound thrombin is protected from inhibition by heparin-antithrombin III but is susceptible to inactivation by antithrombin III-independent inhibitors. J Clin Invest. 1990;86:385-391.
142. Barritt DW, Jordan SC. Anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of pulmonary embolism: a controlled trial. Lancet. 1960;1:1309-1312.
143. Hull R, Delmore T, Genton E, Hirsh J, Gent M, Sackett D, McLoughlin D, Armstrong P. Warfarin sodium versus low-dose heparin in the long-term treatment of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1979;301:855-858.
144. Brandjes DPM, Heijboer H, Buller HR, de Rijk M, Jagt H, ten Cate JW. Acenocoumarol and heparin compared with acenocoumarol alone in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1485-1489.
145. Lagerstedt CI, Olsson CG, Fagher BO, Oqvist BW, Albrechtsson U. Need for long-term anticoagulant treatment in symptomatic calf-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1985;2:515-518.
146. Cruickshank MK, Levine MN, Hirsh J, Roberts R, Siquenza M. A standard heparin nomogram for the management of heparin therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:333-337.
147. Hirsh J. Heparin. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1565-1574.
148. Pini M, Pattachini C, Quintavalla R, Poli T, Megha A, Tagliaferri A, Manotti C, Dettori AG. Subcutaneous vs intravenous heparin in the treatment of deep venous thrombosis: a randomized clinical trial. Thromb Haemost. 1990;64:222-226.
149. Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR, Fontana JR, Srinivas S. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a standard care nomogram: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:874-881.
150. Gallus A, Jackaman J, Tillett J, Mills W, Wycherley A. Safety and efficacy of warfarin started early after submassive venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Lancet. 1986;2:1293-1296.
151. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Rosenbloom D, Panju AA, Brill-Edwads P, Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J, Martin GJ, Green D. Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1260-1264.
152. Chiu HM, Hirsh J, Yung WL, Regoeczi E, Gent M. Relationship between the anticoagulant and antithrombotic effects of heparin in experimental venous thrombosis. Blood. 1977;49:171-184.
153. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Hirsh J, Jay RM, Leclerc JR, Geerts WH, Rosenbloom D, Sackett DL, Anderson C, Harrison L, Gent M. Continuous intravenous heparin compared with intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1109-1114.
154. Bjornsson JD, Nash PV. Variability in heparin sensitivity of aPTT reagents. Am J Clin Pathol. 1986;86:199-204.
155. Hirsh J, van Aken WG, Gallus AS, Dollery CT, Cade JF, Yung WL. Heparin kinetics in venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1976;53:691-695.
156. Young E, Prins M, Levine MN, Hirsh J. Heparin binding to plasma proteins, an important mechanism for heparin resistance. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:639-643.
157. Young E, Cosmi B, Weitz J, Hirsh J. Comparison of the non-specific binding of unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin to plasma proteins. Thromb Haemost. 1993;70: 625-630.
158. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, Turpie AGG, Cruickshank M, Weitz J, Anderson D, Johnston M. A randomized trial comparing the activated thromboplastin time with heparin assay in patients with acute venous thromboembolism requiring large daily doses of heparin. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:49-56.
159. Brill-Edwards P, Ginsberg JS, Johnston M, Hirsh J. Establishing a therapeutic range for heparin therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119: 104-109.
160. Doyle DJ, Turpie AGG, Hirsh J, Best C, Kinch D, Levine MN, Gent M. Adjusted subcutaneous heparin or continuous intravenous heparin in patients with acute deep vein thrombosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:441-445.
161. Bentley PG, Kakkar VV, Scully MF, MacGregor IR, Webb P, Chan P, Jones N. An objective study of alternative methods of heparin administration. Thromb Res. 1980;18:177-187.
162. Andersson G, Fagrell B, Holmgren K, Johnsson H, Ljungberg B, Nilsson E, Wilhelmsson S, Zetterquist S. Subcutaneous administration of heparin: a randomised comparison with intravenous administration of heparin to patients with deep-vein thrombosis. Thromb Res. 1982;27:631-639.
163. Walker MG, Shaw JW, Thomson GJL, Cumming JGR, Thomas ML. Subcutaneous calcium heparin versus intravenous sodium heparin in treatment of established acute deep vein thrombosis of the legs: a multicentre prospective randomised trial. Br J Med (Clin Res Ed). 1987;294:1189-1192.
164. Monreal M, Lafoz E, Olive A, del Rio L, Vedia C. Comparison of subcutaneous unfractionated heparin with a low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin) in patients with venous thromboembolism and contraindications to coumarin. Thromb Haemost. 1994;71:7-11.
165. Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J, Turner DC, Levine MN, Burrows R. Risk to the fetus of anticoagulant therapy during pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 1989;61:197-203.
166. Forestier F, Daffos F, Capella-Pavolvsky M. Low molecular weight heparin (PK 10169) does not cross the placenta during the second trimester of pregnancy: study by direct fetal blood sampling under ultrasound. Thromb Res. 1984;34:557-560.
167. Forestier F, Daffos F, Rainaut M, Toulemonde F. Low molecular weight heparin (CY 216) does not cross the placenta during the third trimester of pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 1987;57:234. Letter.
168. Omri A, Delaloye JF, Andersen H, Bachmann F. Low molecular weight heparin Novo (LHN-1) does not cross the placenta during the second trimester of pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 1989;61: 55-56.
169. Melissari E, Das S, Kanthou C, Pemberton KD, Kakkar VV. The use of LMW heparin in treating thromboembolism during pregnancy and prevention of osteoporosis. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65:926. Abstract.
170. Warkentin TE, Levine MN, Hirsh J, Horsewood P, Roberts RS, Gent M, Kelton JG. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1330-1335.
171. Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GRV. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995;332: 993-997.
172. Violi F, Ferro D, Valesini G. Thrombosis in the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:665. Letter.
173. Derksen RHWM, de Groot PG, Kater L, Nieuwenhuis HK. Patients with antiphospholipid antibodies and venous thrombosis should receive long term anticoagulant treatment. Ann Rheum Dis. 1993;52:689-692.
174. Ginsberg JS, Wells PS, Brill-Edwards P, Donovan D, Moffatt K, Johnston M, Stevens P, Hirsh J. Antiphospholipid antibodies and venous thromboembolism. Blood. 1995;86:3685-3691.
175. Wessler S, Gitel SN. Warfarin: from bedside to bench. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:645-652.
176. Zivelin A, Rao LV, Rapaport SI. Mechanism of the anticoagulant effect of warfarin as evaluated in rabbits by selective depression of individual procoagulant vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. J Clin Invest. 1993;92:2131-2140.
177. O'Sullivan EF. Duration of anticoagulant therapy in venous thromboembolism. Med J Aust. 1972;2:1104-1107.
178. Schulman S, Lockner D, Juhlin-Dannfelt A. The duration of oral anticoagulation after deep vein thrombosis: a randomized study. Acta Med Scand. 1985;217:547-552.
179. Holmgren K, Andersson G, Fagrell B, Johnsson H, Ljungberg B, Nilsson E, Wilhelmsson S, Zetterquist S. One-month versus six-month therapy with oral anticoagulants after symptomatic deep vein thrombosis. Acta Med Scand. 1985;218:279-284.
180. Prandoni P, Lensing AWA, Buller HR, Cogo A, Prins MH, Cattelan AM, Cuppini S, Noventa F, ten Cate JW. Deep-vein thrombosis and the incidence of subsequent symptomatic cancer. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1128-1133.
181. Schulman S, Rhedin AS, Lindmarker P, Carlsson A, Lators G, Nicol P, Loogna E, Svensson E, Ljungberg B, Walter H, et al. A comparison of six weeks with six months of oral anticoagulation after a first episode of venous thromboembolism: Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;332: 1661-1665.
182. Levine MN, Gent M, Hirsh J, Arnold A, Goodyear MD, Hryniuk W, De Pauw S. The thrombogenic effect of anticancer drug therapy in women with stage II breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 1988; 318:404-407.
183. Goldhaber SZ, Buring JE, Lipnick RJ, Hennekens CH. Pooled analyses of randomized trials of stieptokinase and heparin in phlebographically documented acute deep venous thrombosis. Am J Med. 1984;76:393-397.
184. Tibbutt DA, Davies JA, Anderson JA, Fletcher EWL, Hamill J, Holt JM, Thomas ML, Lee GDJ, Miller GAH, Sharp AA, Sutton GC. Comparison by controlled clinical trial of streptokinase and heparin in treatment of life-threatening pulmonary embolism. Br Med J. 1974;1:343-347.
185. Miller GAH, Sutton GC, Kerr IH, Gibson RV, Honey M. Comparison of streptokinase and heparin in the treatment of isolated acute massive pulmonary embolism. Br Med J. 1971;2:681-684.
186. Anderson DR, Levine MN. Thrombolytic therapy for the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Can Med Assoc J. 1992; 146:1317-1324.
187. Elliot MS, Immelman EJ, Jeffery P, Benatar SR, Funston MR, Smith JA, Shepstone BJ, Ferguson AD, Jacobs P, Walker W, Louw JH. A comparative randomized trial of heparin versus streptokinase in the treatment of acute proximal vein thrombosis: an interim report of a prospective trial. Br J Surg. 1979;66:838-843.
188. Coon WW. Operative therapy of venous thromboembolism. Mod Concepts Cardiovasc Dis. 1974;43:71-75.
189. Mobin-Uddin K, Callard GM, Bolooki H, Rubinson R, Michie D, Jude JR. Transvenous caval interruption with an umbrella filter. N Engl J Med. 1972;286:55-58.
190. Mobin-Uddin K. The intracaval umbrella in prevention of pulmonary embolism. In: Bergan JJ, Yao JST, eds. Venous Problems. Chicago, Ill: Year Book Medical Publishers Inc; 1978:333-346.
191. Wingerd M, Bernhard VM, Maddison F, Towne JB. Comparison of caval filters in the management of venous thromboembolism. Arch Surg. 1978;113:1264-1271.
192. Adelson J, Steer ML, Glotzer DJ, Skillman JJ, Simon M, Salzman EW. Thromboembolism after insertion of the Mobin-Uddin caval filter. Surgery. 1980;87:184-189.
193. Schroeder TM, Elkins RC, Greenfield LJ. Entrapment of sized emboli by the KMA-Greenfield intracaval filter. Surgery. 1978;83: 435-439.
194. Magnant JG, Walsh DB, Juravsky LI, Cronenwett JL. Current use of inferior vena cava filters. J Vasc Surg. 1992;16:701-706.
195. Roehm JO Jr. The bird's nest filter: a new percutaneous transcatheter inferior vena cava filter. J Vasc Surg. 1984;1:498-501.
196. Hunter JA, Sessions R, Petasnick J. Therapeutic balloon occlusion of the inferior vena cava. JAMA. 1975;234:1034-1037.
197. Moser KM, Harsany PG, Harvey-Smith W, Durante PL, Guisan M. Reversible interruption of inferior vena cava by means of a balloon catheter: preliminary report. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1971;62:205-212.
198. Hunter JA, DeLaria GA, Goldin MD, Serry C, Monson DO, DaValle MJ, Najafi H. Inferior vena cava interruption with the Hunter-Sessions balloon: eighteen years' experience in 191 cases. J Vasc Surg. 1989;10:450-456.
199. Lansing AM, Davis WM. Five-year follow-up study of iliofemoral venous thrombectomy. Ann Surg. 1968;168:620-628.
200. Miller GAH, Hall RJC, Paneth M. Pulmonary embolectomy, heparin, and streptokinase: their place in the treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. Am Heart J. 1977;93:568-574.
201. Donaldson GA, Williams C, Scannell JG, Shaw RG. A reappraisal of the application of the Trendelenburg operation for massive fatal embolism. N Engl J Med. 1963;268:171-174.
202. Moser KM, Daily PO, Peterson K, Dembitsky W, Vapnek JM, Shure D, Utley J, Archibald C. Thromboendarterectomy for chronic, major-vessel thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: immediate and long-term results in 42 patients. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:560-565.
203. Moser KM, Auger WR, Fedullo PF. Chronic major-vessel thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation. 1990;81: 1735-1743.
204. Painter TD, Karpf M. Deep venous thrombosis of the upper extremity: five years' experience at a university hospital. Angiology. 1984;35:743-749.
205. Becker DM, Philbrick JT, Walker FB IV. Axillary and subclavian venous thrombosis: prognosis and treatment. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1934-1943.
206. Lindblad B, Tengborn L, Bergqvist D. Deep vein thrombosis of the axillary-subclavian veins: epidemiologic data, effects of different types of treatment and late sequelae. Eur J Vasc Surg. 1988; 2:161-165.
207. Thaler E, Lechner K. Antithrombin III deficiency and thromboembolism. Clin Haematol. 1981;10:369-390.
208. Engesser L, Broekmans AW, Briet E, Brommer EJ, Bertina RM. Hereditary protein S deficiency: clinical manifestations. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:677-682.
209. Girolami A, Marafioti F, Rubertelli M, Cappellato MG. Congenital heterozygous plasminogen deficiency associated with a severe thrombotic tendency. Acta Haematol. 1986;75:54-57.
210. Mackworth-Young CG, Loizou S, Walport MJ. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome: features of patients with raised anticardiolipin antibodies and no other disorder. Ann Rheum Dis. 1989;48: 362-367.
211. Monreal M, Lafoz E, Ruiz J, Valls R, Alastrue A. Upper-extremity deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a prospective study. Chest. 1991;99:280-283.
212. Horattas MC, Wright DJ, Fenton AH, Evans DM, Oddi MA, Kamienski RW, Shields EF. Changing concepts of deep venous thrombosis of the upper extremity: report of a series and review of the literature. Surgery. 1988;104:561-567.
213. Martin EC, Koser M, Gordon DH. Venography in axillary-subclavian vein thrombosis. Cardiovasc Radiol. 1979;2:261-266.
214. Lindblad B, Bornmyr S, Kullendorff B, Bergqvist D. Venous haemodynamics of the upper extremity after subclavian vein thrombosis. Vasa. 1990;19:218-222.
215. Donayre CE, White GH, Mehringer SM, Wilson SE. Pathogenesis determines late morbidity of axillosubclavian vein thrombosis. Am J Surg. 1986;152:179-184.
216. Tilney ML, Griffiths HJ, Edwards EA. Natural history of major venous thrombosis of the upper extremity. Arch Surg. 1970;101: 792-796.
217. Machleder HI. Evaluation of a new treatment strategy for Paget-Schroetter syndrome: spontaneous thrombosis of the axillary-subclavian vein. J Vasc Surg. 1993;17:305-315.
218. Haire WD, Lynch TG, Lieberman RP, Lund GB, Edney JA. Utility of duplex ultrasound in the diagnosis of asymptomatic catheter-induced subclavian vein thrombosis. J Ultrasound Med. 1991;10:493-496.
219. Machleder HI. The role of thrombolytic agents for acute subclavian vein thrombosis. Semin Vasc Surg. 1992;5:82.
220. Becker GJ, Holden RW, Rabe FE, Castaneda-Zuniga WR, Sears N, Dilley RS, Glover JL. Local thrombolytic therapy for subclavian and axillary vein thrombosis: treatment of the thoracic inlet syndrome. Radiology. 1983;149:419-423.
221. McNamara TO, Fischer JR. Thrombolysis of peripheral arterial and graft occlusions: improved results using high-dose urokinase. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985;144:769-775.
222. Kleinsasser LJ. 'Effort' thrombosis of the axillary and subclavian veins. Arch Surg. 1949;59:258.
223. Smith VC, Hallett JW Jr. Subclavian vein thrombosis during prolonged catheterization for parenteral nutrition: early management and long-term follow-up. South Med J. 1983;76:603-606.
224. Axelsson CK, Efsen F. Phlebography in long-term catheterization of the subclavian vein: a retrospective study in patients with severe gastrointestinal disorders. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1978;13:933-938.
225. Campbell CB, Chandler JG, Tegtmeyer CJ, Bernstein EF. Axillary, subclavian, and brachiocephalic vein obstruction. Surgery. 1977;82:816-826.
226. Wilson JJ, Lesk D, Newman H. Subclavian-axillary vein thrombosis: successful treatment with streptokinase. Can Med Assoc J. 1984;130:891-893.
227. Appleby DH, Heller MS. Low-dose streptokinase therapy for subclavian vein thrombosis. South Med J. 1984;77:536-537.
228. Rubenstein M, Creger WP. Successful streptokinase therapy for catheter-induced subclavian vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 1980;140:1370-1371.
229. Fraschini G, Jadeja J, Lawson M, Holmes FA, Carrasco HC, Wallace S. Local infusion of urokinase for the lysis of thrombosis associated with permanent central venous catheters in cancer patients. J Clin Oncol. 1987;5:672-678.
230. Druy EM, Trout HH III, Giordano JM, Hix WR. Lytic therapy in the treatment of axillary and subclavian vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 1985;2:821-827.
231. Ginsberg JS, Brill-Edwards P, Burrows RF, Bona R, Prandoni P, Buller HR, Lensing A. Venous thrombosis during pregnancy: leg and trimester of presentation. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:519-520.
232. Demers C, Ginsberg JS. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in pregnancy. Clin Chest Med. 1992;13:645-656.
233. Ginsberg JS, Hirsh J, Turner DC, Levine MN, Burrows R. Risks to the fetus of anticoagulant therapy during pregnancy. Thromb Haemost. 1989;61:197-203.
234. Hall JAG, Pauli RM, Wilson KM. Maternal and fetal sequelae of anticoagulation during pregnancy. Am J Med. 1980;68:122-140.
235. Ginsberg JS, Kowalchuk G, Hirsh J, Brill-Edwards P, Burrows R. Heparin therapy during pregnancy: risks to the fetus and mother. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:2233-2236.
236. Iturbe-Alessio I, Fonseca MC, Mutchinik O, Santos MA, Zajarias A, Salazar E. Risks of anticoagulant therapy in pregnancy women with artificial heart valves. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1390-1393.
237. Anderson DR, Ginsberg JS, Burrows R, Brill-Edwards P. Subcutaneous heparin therapy during pregnancy: a need for concern at the time of delivery. Thromb Haemost. 1991;65:248-250.
238. Hirsh J, van Aken WG, Gallus AS, Dollery CT, Cade JF, Yung WL. Heparin kinetics in venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 1976;53:691-695.
239. McKenna R, Cole ER, Vasan U. Is warfarin sodium contraindicated in the lactating mother? J Pediatr. 1983;103:325-327.
240. Orme ML, Lewis PJ, de Swiet M, Serlin MJ, Sibeon R, Baty JD, Breckenridge AM. May mothers given warfarin breast-feed their infants? Br Med J. 1977;1:1564-1565.
241. Delclos GL, Davila F. Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism in pregnancy: a case report. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986; 155:375-376.
242. Hall RJ, Young C, Sutton GC, Cambell S. Treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism by streptokinase during labour and delivery. Br Med J. 1972;4:647-649.
243. Henny CP, ten Cate H, ten Cate JW, Prummel MF, Peters M, Buller HR. Thrombosis prophylaxis in an AT III deficient pregnant woman: application of a low molecular weight heparinoid. Thromb Haemost. 1986;55:301. Letter.
244. Priollet P, Roncato M, Aiach M, Housset E, Poissonnier MH, Chavinie J. Low-molecular-weight heparin in venous thrombosis during pregnancy. Br J Haematol. 1986;63:605-606.
245. Carter C, Gent M. The epidemiology of venous thrombosis. In: Colman R, Hirsh J, Marder V, Salzman E, eds. Haemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott Co; 1982:805-819.
246. Castaman G, Rodeghiero F, Dini E. Thrombotic complications during L-asparaginase treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia. Haematologica. 1990;75:567-569.
247. Wise RC, Todd JK. Spontaneous, lower-extremity venous thrombosis in children. Am J Dis Child. 1973;126:766-769.
248. Bernstein D, Coupey S, Schonberg SK. Pulmonary embolism in adolescents. Am J Dis Child. 1986;140:667-671.
249. Uden A. Thromboembolic complications following scoliosis surgery in Scandinavia. Acta Orthop Scand. 1979;50:175-178.
250. Andrew M, David M, Adams M, Ali K, Anderson R, Barnard D, Bernstein M, Brisson L, Cairney B, DeSai D, Grant R, Israels S, Jardine L, Luke B, Massicotte P, Silva M. Venous thromboembolic complications (VTE) in children: first analyses of the Canadian Registry of VTE. Blood. 1994;83:1251-1257.
251. David M, Andrew M. Venous thromboembolic complications in children. J Pediatr. 1993;123:337-346.
252. Schmidt B, Andrew A. A prospective international registry of neonatal thrombotic diseases. Pediatr Res. 1994;35(pt 2):170a. Abstract.
253. Green RM, Meyer TJ, Dunn M, Glassroth J. Pulmonary embolism in younger adults. Chest. 1992;101:1507-1511.
254. Lindblad B, Bergqvist D. Aggressive or conservative treatment in subclavian vein thrombosis. In: Eklof B, Gjores J, Thulesius O, Bergqvist D, eds. Controversies in the Management of Venous Disorders: Scandinavian Contributions on Venous Problems With Comments by International Authorities. London, UK: Butterworths; 1989:141-158.
255. Rockoff MA, Gang DL, Vacanti JP. Fatal pulmonary embolism following removal of a central venous catheter. J Pediatr Surg. 1984;19:307-309.
256. Mulvihill SJ, Fonkalsrud EW. Complications of superior versus inferior vena cava occlusion in infants receiving central total parenteral nutrition. J Pediatr Surg. 1984;19:752-757.
257. Mollitt DL, Golladay ES. Complications of TPN catheter-induced vena caval thrombosis in children less than one year of age. J Pediatr Surg. 1983;18:462-467.
258. Le Coultre C, Oberhansli I, Mossaz A, Bugmann P, Faidutti B, Belli DC. Postoperative chylothorax in children: differences between vascular and traumatic origin. J Pediatr Surg. 1991;26: 519-523.
259. Tanaka K, Takao M, Yada I, Yuasa H, Kusagawa M, Deguchi K. Alterations in coagulation and fibrinolysis associated with cardiopulmonary bypass during open heart surgery. J Cardiothorac Anesth. 1989;3:181-188.
260. Graham L Jr, Gumbiner CH. Right atrial thrombus and superior vena cava syndrome in a child. Pediatrics. 1984;73:225-229.
261. Bertrand M, Presant CA, Klein L, Scott E. Iatrogenic superior vena cava syndrome: a new entity. Cancer. 1984;54:376-378.
262. Kramer SS, Taylor GA, Garfinkel DJ, Simmons MA. Lethal chylothoraces due to superior vena caval thrombosis in infants. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1981;137:559-563.
263. Dhande V, Kattwinkel J, Alford B. Recurrent bilateral pleural effusions secondary to superior vena cava obstruction as a complication of central venous catheterization. Pediatrics. 1983;72: 109-113.
264. Duke W. The relation of blood platelets to hemorrhagic disease: description of a method for determining the bleeding time and coagulation time and report of three cases of hemorrhagic disease relieved by transfusion. JAMA. 1910;55:1185-1192.
265. Andrew M, Marzinotto V, Pencharz P, Zlotkin S, Burrows P, Ingram J, Adams M, Filler R. A cross-sectional study of catheter-related thrombosis in children receiving total parenteral nutrition at home. J Pediatr. 1995;126:358-363.
266. Rajani K, Goetzman BW, Wennberg RP, Turner E, Abildgaard C. Effect of heparinization of fluids infused through an umbilical artery catheter on catheter patency and frequency of complications. Pediatrics. 1979;63:552-556.
267. David R, Merten D, Anderson JC, Gross S. Prevention of umbilical artery catheter clots with heparinized infusates. Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1981;2:117-126.
268. Bosque E, Weaver L. Continuous versus intermittent heparin infusion of umbilical artery catheters in the newborn infant. J Pediatr. 1986;108:141-143.
269. Horgan MJ, Bartoletti A, Polansky S, Peters JC, Manning TJ, Lamont BM. Effect of heparin infusates in umbilical arterial catheters on frequency of thrombotic complications. J Pediatr. 1987;111:774-778.
270. Ankola PA, Atakent YS. Effect of adding heparin in very low concentration to the infusate to prolong the patency of umbilical artery catheters. Am J Perinatol. 1993;10:229-232.
271. Salzman EW, Deykin D, Shapiro RM, Rosenberg R. Management of heparin therapy: controlled prospective trial. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:1046-1050.
272. Hommes DW, Bura A, Mazzolai L, Buller HR, ten Cate JW. Subcutaneous heparin compared with continuous intravenous heparin administration in the initial treatment of deep vein thrombosis: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:279-284.
273. Hirsh J, Dalen JE, Deykin D, Poller L. Heparin: mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, dosing considerations, monitoring, efficacy, and safety. Chest. 1992;102(suppl 4):337S-351S.
274. de Swart CAM, Nijmeyer B, Roelofs JMM, Sixma JJ. Kinetics of intravenously administered heparin in normal humans. Blood. 1982;60:1251-1258.
275. Olsson P, Lagergren H, Ek S. The elimination from plasma of intravenous heparin: an experimental study on dogs and humans. Acta Med Scand. 1963;173:619-630.
276. Bjornsson TD, Wolfram KM, Kitchell BB. Heparin kinetics determined by three assay methods. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1982;31: 104-113.
277. Racanelli A, Fareed J, Walenga JM, Coyne E. Biochemical and pharmacologie studies on the protamine interactions with heparin, its fractions and fragments. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1985;11: 176-189.
278. Sharath MD, Metzger WJ, Richerson HB, Scupham RK, Meng RL, Ginsberg BH, Weiler JM. Protamine-induced fatal anaphylaxis: prevalence of antiprotamine immunoglobulin E antibody. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1985;90:86-90.
279. Shapira N, Schaff HV, Piehler JM, White RD, Still JC, Pluth JR. Cardiovascular effects of protamine sulfate in man. J Thorac Cardiavasc Surg. 1982;84:505-514.
280. Ellison N, Beatty CP, Blake DR, Wurzel HA, MacVaugh H III. Heparin-rebound: studies in patients and volunteers. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1974;67:723-729.
281. Gollub S. Heparin rebound in open heart surgery. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1967;124:337-346.
282. Pifarre R, Sullivan HJ, Montoya A, Bakhos M, Grieco J, Foy BKB, Blakeman B. Management of blood loss and heparin rebound following cardiopulmonary bypass. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1989; 15:173-177.
283. Teoh KHT, Young E, Bradley CA, Hirsh J. Heparin binding proteins: contribution to heparin rebound after cardiopulmonary bypass. Circulation. 1993;88(pt 2):II-420-II-425.
284. Jones TK, Barnes RW, Greenfield LJ. Greenfield vena caval filter: rationale and current indications. Ann Thorac Surg. 1986; 42(suppl):S48-S55.
285. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Kelton JG. Heparin-induced bleeding. In: Lane DA, Lindahl U, eds. Heparin: Chemical and Biological Properties, Clinical Applications. London, UK: Edward Arnold; 1989: 517-532.
286. Green D, Lee MY, Ito VY, Cohn T, Press J, Filbrandt PR, VandenBerg WC, Yarkony GM, Meyer PR Jr. Fixed- vs adjusted-dose heparin in the prophylaxis of thromboembolism in spinal cord injury. JAMA. 1988;260:1255-1258.
287. Wilson JR, Lampman J. Heparin therapy: a randomized prospective study. Am Heart J. 1979;97:155-158.
288. Levine MN, Hirsh J, Landefeld S, Raskob G. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant treatment. Chest. 1992;102(suppl): 352S-363S.
289. Yett HS, Skillman JJ, Salzman EW. The hazards of aspirin plus heparin. N Engl J Med. 1978;298:1092. Letter.
290. Sethi GK, Copeland JG, Goldman S. Moritz T, Zadina K, Henderson WG. Implications of preoperative administration of aspirin in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on Antiplatelet Therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;15:15-20.
291. GISSI-2. A factorial randomised trial alteplase versus streptokinase and heparin versus no heparin among 12,490 patients with acute myocardial infarction: Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza Nell'infarto Miocardico. Lancet. 1990;336: 65-71.
292. ISIS-3: a randomised comparison of streptokinase vs tissue plasminogen activator vs anistreplase and of aspirin plus heparin vs aspirin alone among 41,299 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1992;339:753-770.
293. Urokinase-Pulmonary Embolism Trial: morbidity and mortality. Circulation. 1973;58:II-66-II-72.
294. Norman CS, Provan JL. Control and complications of intermittent heparin therapy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1977;145:338-342.
295. King DJ, Kelton JG. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med. 1984;100:535-540.
296. Warkentin TE, Kelton JG. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Annu Rev Med. 1989;40:31-44.
297. Ginsberg JS, Kowalchuk G, Hirsh J, Brill-Edwards P, Burrows R, Coates G, Webber C. Heparin effect on bone density. Thromb Haemost. 1990;64:286-289.
298. Avioli LV. Heparin-induced osteopenia: an appraisal. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1975;52:375-387.
299. Dahlman T, Lindvall N, Hellgren M. Osteopenia in pregnancy during long-term heparin treatment: a radiological study post partum. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;97:221-228.
300. Wise PH, Hall AJ. Heparin-induced osteopenia in pregnancy. Br Med J. 1980;281:110-111.
301. Squires JW, Pinch LWC. Heparin-induced spinal fractures. JAMA. 1979;241:2417-2418.
302. Griffiths HT, Liu DTY. Severe heparin osteoporosis in pregnancy. Postgrad Med J. 1984;60:424-425.
303. White PW, Sadd JR, Nensel RE. Thrombotic complications of heparin therapy: including six cases of heparin-induced skin necrosis. Ann Surg. 1979;190:595-608.
304. Abbott EC, Gornall AG, Sutherland DJA, Laidlaw JC, Stiefel M. The influence of a heparin-like compound on hypertension electrolytes and aldosterone in man. Can Med Assoc J. 1966;94: 1155-1164.
305. Conn JW, Rovner DR, Cohen EL, Anderson JE Jr. Inhibition by heparinoid of aldosterone biosynthesis in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1966;26:527-532.
306. Leehey D, Gantt C, Lim V. Heparin-induced hypoaldosteronism: report of a case. JAMA. 1981;246:2189-2190.
307. Phelps KR, Oh MS, Carroll HJ. Heparin-induced hyperkalemia: report of a case. Nephron. 1980;25:254-258.
308. Dukes GE Jr, Sanders SW, Russo J Jr, Swenson E, Burnakis TG, Saffle JR, Warden GD. Transaminase elevations in patients receiving bovine or porcine heparin. Ann Intern Med. 1984;100: 646-650.
309. Nelson JC, Lerner RG, Goldstein R, Cagin NA. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Intern Med. 1978;138:548-552.
310. Salzman EW, Rosenberg RD, Smith MN, Lindon JN, Favreau L. Effect of heparin and heparin fractions on platelet aggregation. J Clin Invest. 1980;65:64-73.
311. Barradas MA, Mikhailidis DP, Epemolu O, Jeremy JY, Fonseca V, Dandona P. Comparison of the platelet pro-aggregatory effect of conventional unfractionated heparins and a low molecular weight heparin fraction (CY 222). Br J Haematol. 1987;67:451-457.
312. Chong BH, Ismail F. The mechanism of heparin-induced platelet aggregation. Eur J Haematol. 1989;43:245-251.
313. Chong BH, Pitney WR, Castaldi PA. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: association of thrombotic complications with heparin-dependent IgG antibody that induces thromboxane synthesis and platelet aggregation. Lancet. 1982;2:1246-1249.
314. Ansell J, Slepchuk N Jr, Kumar R, Lopez A, Southard L, Deykin D. Heparin- induced thrombocytopenia: a prospective study. Thromb Haemost. 1980;43:61-65.
315. Ansell JE, Price JM, Shah S, Beckner RR. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: what is its real frequency? Chest. 1985;88: 878-882.
316. Bailey RT Jr, Ursick JA, Heim KL, Hilleman DE, Reich JW. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: a prospective comparison of bovine lung heparin, manufactured by a new process, and porcine intestinal heparin. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1986;20: 374-378.
317. Ramirez-Lassepas M, Cipolle RJ, Rodvold KA, Seifert RD, Strand L, Taddeini L, Cusulos M. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in patients with cerebrovascular ischemic disease. Neurology. 1984;34:736-740.
318. Cipolle RJ, Rodvold KA, Seifert R, Clarens R, Ramirez-Lassepas M. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: a prospective evaluation of 211 patients. Ther Drug Monit. 1983;5:205-211.
319. Gallus AS, Goodall KT, Beswick W, Chesterman CN. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: case report and prospective study. Aust N Z J Med. 1980;10:25-31.
320. Green D, Martin GJ, Shoichet SH, DeBacker N, Bomalaski JS, Lind RN. Thrombocytopenia in a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial of bovine and porcine heparin. Am J Med Sci. 1984;288:60-64.
321. Green D. Heparin-immune thrombocytopenia. Med J Aust. 1986; 144:37-39.
322. Powers PJ, Cuthbert D, Hirsh J. Thrombocytopenia found uncommonly during heparin therapy. JAMA. 1979;241:2396-2397.
323. Powers PJ, Kelton JG, Carter CJ. Studies on the frequency of heparin-associatcd thrombocytopenia. Thromb Res. 1984;33: 439-443.
324. Rao AK, White GC, Sherman L, Colman R, Lan G, Ball AP. Low incidence of thrombocytopenia with porcine mucosal heparin: a prospective multicenter study. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149: 1285-1288.
325. Warkentin TE, Kelton JG. Interaction of heparin with platelets, including heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. In: Bounameaux H, ed. Low-Molecular-Weight Heparins in Prophylaxis and Therapy of Thromboembolic Diseases. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc; 1994:75-127.
326. Kapsch DN, Adelstein EH, Rhodes GR, Silver D. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, thrombosis, and hemorrhage. Surgery. 1979;86:148-155.
327. Warkentin TE, Kelton JG. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: predominance of venous thrombotic complications, and a high risk for subsequent thrombosis in patients who are initially recognized with isolated thrombocytopenia. Blood. 1994;84(suppl 1):188A. Abstract.
328. Kelton JG, Sheridan D, Santos A, Smith J, Sleeves K, Smith C, Brown C, Murphy WG. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: laboratory studies. Blood. 1988;72:925-930.
329. Chong BH, Fawaz I, Chesterman CN, Berndt MC. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: mechanism of interaction of the heparin-dependent antibody with platelets. Br J Haematol. 1989; 73:235-240.
330. Amiral J, Bridey F, Dreyfus M, Vissoc AM, Fressinaud E, Wolf M, Meyer D. Platelet factor 4 complexed to heparin is the target for antibodies generated in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost. 1992;68:95-96. Letter.
331. Kelton JG, Smith JW, Warkentin TE, Hayward CPM, Denomme GA, Horsewood P. Immunoglobulin G from patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia binds to a complex of heparin and platelet factor 4. Blood. 1994;83:3232-3239.
332. Visentin GP, Ford SE, Scott JP, Aster RH. Antibodies from patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis are specific for platelet factor 4 complexed with heparin or bound to endothelial cells. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:81-88.
333. Greinacher A, Potzsch B, Amiral J, Dummel V, Eichner A, Mueller-Eckhardt C. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: isolation of the antibody and characterization of a multimolecular PF4-heparin complex as the major antigen. Thromb Haemost. 1994;71:247-251.
334. Chong BH, Murray B, Berndt MC, Dunlop LC, Brighton T, Chesterman CN. Plasma P-selectin is increased in thrombotic consumptive platelet disorders. Blood. 1994;83:1535-1541.
335. Warkentin TE, Hayward CPM, Boshkov LK, Santos AV, Sheppard JA, Bode AP, Kelton JG. Sera from patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia generate platelet-derived microparticles with procoagulant activity: an explanation for the thrombotic complications of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 1994;84:3691-3699.
336. Cines DB, Tomaski A, Tannenbaum S. Immune endothelial-cell injury in heparin-associated thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:581-589.
337. Sheridan D, Carter C, Kelton JG. A diagnostic test for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 1986;67:27-30.
338. Greinacher A, Michels I, Kiefel V, Mueller-Eckhardt C. A rapid and sensitive test for diagnosing heparin-associated thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost. 1991;66:734-736.
339. Chong BH, Burgess J, Ismail F. The clinical usefulness of the platelet aggregation test for the diagnosis of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost. 1993;69:344-350.
340. Favaloro EJ, Bernal-Hoyos E, Exner T, Koutts J. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: laboratory investigation and confirmation of diagnosis. Pathology. 1992;24:177-183.
341. Kelton JG, Sheridan D, Brain H, Powers PJ, Turpie AGG, Carter CJ. Clinical usefulness of testing for a heparin-dependent platelet-aggregating factor in patients with suspected heparin-associated thrombocytopenia. J Lab Clin Med. 1984;103:606-612.
342. Greinacher A, Amiral J, Dummel V, Vissac A, Kiefel V, Mueller-Eckhardt C. Laboratory diagnosis of heparin-associated thrombocytopenia and comparison of platelet aggregation test, heparin-induced platelet activation test, and platelet factor 4/heparin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Transfusion. 1994;34: 381-385.
343. Greinacher A, Michels I, Mueller-Eckhardt C. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: the antibody is not heparin specific. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:545-549.
344. Chong BH, Ismail F, Cade J, Gallus AS, Gordon S, Chesterman CN. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: studies with a new low molecular weight heparinoid, Org 10172. Blood. 1989;73: 1592-1596.
345. Magnani HN. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): an overview of 230 patients treated with orgaran (Org 10172). Thromb Haemost. 1993;70:554-561.
346. Demers C, Ginsberg JS, Brill-Edwards P, Panju A, Warkentin TE, Anderson DR, Turner C, Kelton JG. Rapid anticoagulation using ancrod for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 1991;78: 2194-2197.
347. Cole CW, Bormanis J. Ancrod: a practical alternative to heparin. J Vasc Surg. 1988;8:59-63.
348. Greinacher A, Liebenhoff U, Kiefel V, Presek P, Mueller-Eckhardt C. Heparin-associated thrombocytopenia: the effects of various intravenous IgG preparations on antibody mediated platelet activation: a possible new indication for high dose i.v. IgG. Thromb Haemost. 1994;71:641-645.
349. Krishnamurti C, Bolan CD, Reid TJ III, Alving BM. Pharmacology and mechanism of action of ancrod: potential for inducing thrombosis. Blood. 1992;79:2492. Letter.
350. Pitney WR, Holt PJ, Bray C, Bolton G. Acquired resistance to treatment with arvin. Lancet. 1969;1:79-81.
351. Turpie AGG, Gent M, Laupacis A, Latour Y, Wright D, Hoffman J, Gunstensen J, Basile F, Klimek M, Hirsh J. Reduction in mortality by adding acetylsalicylic acid (100 mg) to oral anticoagulants in patients with heart valve replacement. Can J Cardiol. 1991;7(suppl A):95A. Abstract.
352. Saour JN, Sieck JO, Mamo LAR, Gallus AS. Trial of different intensities of anticoagulation in patients with prosthetic heart valves. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:428-432.
353. Landefeld CS, Rosenblatt MW, Goldman L. Bleeding in outpatients treated with warfarin: relation to the prothrombin time and important remediable lesions. Am J Med. 1989;87:153-159.
354. Landefeld CS, Goldman L. Major bleeding in outpatients treated with warfarin: incidence and prediction by factors known at the start of outpatient therapy. Am J Med. 1989;87:144-152.
355. Dale J, Myhre E, Loew D. Bleeding during acetylsalicylic acid and anticoagulant therapy in patients with reduced platelet reactivity after aortic valve replacement. Am Heart J. 1980;99:746-752.
356. Chesebro JH, Fuster V, Elveback LR, McGoon DC, Pluth JR, Puga FJ, Wallace RB, Danielson GK, Orszulak TA, Piehler JM, Schaff HV. Trial of combined warfarin plus dipyridamole or aspirin therapy in prosthetic heart valve replacement: danger of aspirin compared wild dipyridamole. Am J Cardiol. 1983;51: 1537-1541.
357. Levine MN, Raskob G, Hirsh J. Hemorrhagic complications of long-term anticoagulant therapy. Chest. 1989;95(suppl):26S-36S.
358. Altman R, Rouvier J, Gurfinkel E, D'Ortencio O, Manzanel R, de La Fuente L, Favaloro RG. Comparison of two levels of anticoagulant therapy in patients with substitute heart valves. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1991;101:427-431.
359. Petersen P, Boysen G, Godtfredsen J, Andersen ED, Andersen B. Placebo-controlled, randomised trial of warfarin and aspirin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in chronic atrial fibrillation: the Copenhagen AFASAK Study. Lancet. 1989;1: 175-179.
360. Preliminary report of the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:863-868.
361. Wells PS, Lensing AWA, Davidson BL, Prins MH, Hirsh J, Accuracy of ultrasound for the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis in asymptomatic patients after orthopedic surgery: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:47-53.
362. Turpie AGG, Gent M, Laupacis A, Latour Y, Gunstensen J, Basile F, Klimek M, Hirsh J. A comparison of aspirin with placebo in patients treated with warfarin following heart-valve replacement. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:524-529.
363. Turpie AGG, Gunstensen J, Hirsh J, Nelson H, Gent M. Randomised comparison of two intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy after tissue heart valve replacement. Lancet. 1988;1: 1242-1245.
364. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study: final results. Circulation. 1991;84:527-539.
365. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1505-1511.
366. Connolly SJ, Laupacis A, Gent M, Roberts RS, Cairns JA, Joyner C. Canadian Atrial Fibrillation Anticoagulation (CAFA) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:349-355.
367. Ezekowitz MD, Bridgers SL, James KE, Carliner NH, Colling CL, Gornick CC, Krause-Steinrauf H, Kurtzke JF, Nazarian SM, Radford MJ, et al. Warfarin in the prevention of stroke associated with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation: Veterans Affairs Stroke Prevention in Nonrheumatic Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1406-1412.
368. Broekmans AW, Bertina RM, Loeliger EA, Hofmann V, Klingemann HG. Protein C and the development of skin necrosis during anticoagulant therapy. Thromb Haemost. 1983;49:251.
369. Sherman DG, Dyken ML, Fisher M, Harrison MJG, Hart RG. Antithrombotic therapy for cerebrovascular disorders. Chest. 1989;95(suppl):140S-155S.
370. Verhagen H. Local hemorrhage and necrosis of the skin and underlying tissues at starting therapy with dicumarol or dicumacyl. Acta Med Scand. 1954;148:453-467.
371. Weinberg AC, Lieskovsky G, McGehee WG, Skinner DG. Warfarin necrosis of the skin and subcutaneous tissue of the male genitalia. J Urol. 1983;130:352-354.
372. Zauber NP, Stark MW. Successful warfarin anticoagulation despite protein C deficiency and a history of warfarin necrosis. Ann Intern Med. 1986;104:659-660.
373. Saraama M, Horellou MH, Soria J, Conard J, Nicolas G. Successful progressive anticoagulation in a severe protein C deficiency and previous skin necrosis at the initiation of oral anticoagulation treatment. Thromb Haemost. 1984;51:132-133. Letter.
374. Grimaudo V, Gueissaz F, Hauert J, Sarraj A, Kruithof EKO, Bachmann F. Necrosis of skin induced by coumarin in a patient deficient in protein S. BMJ. 1989;298:233-234.
375. Pabinger-Fasching I, Deutsch E. Protein C deficiency in Austria. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1985;11:347-351.
376. Hofmann V, Frick PG. Repeated occurrence of skin necrosis twice following coumarin intake and subsequently during decrease of vitamin K dependent coagulation factors associated with cholestasis. Thromb Haemost. 1982;48:245-246.
377. Sills RH, Marlar RA, Montgomery RR, Deshpande GN, Humbert JR. Severe homozygous protein C deficiency. J Pediatr. 1984;105: 409-413.
378. Estelles A, Garcia-Plaza I, Dasi A, Aznar K, Duart M, Sanz G, Perez-Requejo JL, Espana F, Jimenez C, Abeledo G. Severe inherited homozygous protein C deficiency in a newborn infant. Thromb Haemost. 1984;52:53-56.
379. Marciniak E, Wilson HD, Marlar RA. Neonatal purpura fulminans: a genetic disorder related to the absence of protein C in blood. Blood. 1985;65:15-20.
380. Branson HE, Katz J, Marble R, Griffin JH. Inherited protein C deficiency and coumarin-responsive chronic relapsing purpura fulminans in a newborn infant. Lancet. 1983;2:1165-1168.
381. White RH, McKittrick T, Hutchinson R, Twitchell J. Temporary discontinuation of warfarin therapy: changes in the international normalized ratio. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:40-42.
382. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation: analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:1449-1457.
383. Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR, Briet E. Thromboembolic and bleeding complications in patients with mechanical heart valve prostheses. Circulation. 1994;89:635-641.
384. 1. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:13-15.
385. Francis CW, Marder VJ, Evarts CM, Yaukoolbodi S. Two step warfarin therapy: prevention of postoperative venous thrombosis without excessive bleeding. JAMA. 1983;249:374-378.
386. Hirsh J, Prins MH, Samama M. Approach to the thrombophilic patient for hemostasis and thrombosis: basic principles and clinical practice. In: Colman W, Hirsh J, Marder VJ, Salzman EW, eds. Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott Co; 1994:1543-1561.
387. Egeberg O. Inherited antithrombin deficiency causing thrombophilia. Thromb Diath Haemorrh. 1965;13:516-530.
388. Gladson CL, Scharrer I, Hach V, Beck KH, Griffin JH. The frequency of type I heterozygous protein S and protein C deficiency in 141 unrelated young patients with venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1988;59:18-22.
389. Heijboer H, Brandjes DP, Buller HR, Sturk A, ten Cate, JW. Deficiencies of coagulation-inhibiting and fibrinolytic proteins in outpatients with deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1990;323: 1512-1516.
390. Coller BS, Owen J, Jesty J, Horowitz D, Reitman MJ, Spear J, Yeh T, Comp PC. Deficiency of plasma protein S, protein C, or antithrombin III and arterial thrombosis. Arteriosclerosis. 1987;7: 456-462.
391. Allaart CF, Aronson DC, Ruys T, Rosendaal FR, van Bockel JH, Bertina RM, Briet E. Hereditary protein S deficiency in young adults with arterial occlusive disease. Thromb Haemost. 1990;64: 206-210.
392. Bovill EG, Bauer KA, Dickerman JD, Callas P, West B. The clinical spectrum of heterozygous protein C deficiency in a large New England kindred. Blood. 1989;73:712-717.
393. Mannucci PM, Tripodi A, Bertina RM. Protein S deficiency associated with juvenile arterial and venous thromboses. Thromb Haemost. 1986;55:440. Letter.
394. Broekmans AW, Veltkamp JJ, Bertina RM. Congenital protein C deficiency and venous thromboembolism: a study in three Dutch families. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:340-344.
395. Horellou MH, Conard J, Bertina RM, Samama M. Congenital protein C deficiency and thrombotic disease in nine French families. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984;289:1285-1287.
396. Rodgers GM. Activated protein C resistance and inherited thrombosis. Am J Clin Pathol. 1995;103:261-262.
397. Dahlback B, Carlsson M, Svensson PJ. Familial thrombophilia due to a previously unrecognized mechanism characterized by poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: prediction of a cofactor to activated protein C. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90: 1004-1008.
398. Koster T, Rosendaal FR, de Ronde H, Briet E, Vandenbroucke JP, Bertina RM. Venous thrombosis due to poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: Leiden Thrombophilia Study. Lancet. 1993;342:1503-1506.
399. Svensson PJ, Dahlback B. Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:517-522.
400. Griffin JHY, Evatt B, Wideman C, Fernandez JA. Anticoagulant protein C pathway defective in majority of thrombophilic patients. Blood. 1993;82:1989-1993.
401. Bertina RM, Koeleman BP, Koster T, Rosendaal FR, Dirven RJ, de Ronde H, van der Velden PA, Reitsma RH. Mutation in blood coagulation factor V associated with resistance to activated protein C. Nature. 1994;369:64-67.
402. Vandenbroucke JP, Koster T, Briet E, Reitsma PH, Bertina RM, Rosendaal FR. Increased risk of venous thrombosis in oral-contraceptive users who are carriers of factor V Leiden mutation. Lancet. 1994;344:1453-1457.
403. Triplett DA, Brandt JT. Lupus anticoagulants: misnomer, paradox, riddle, epiphenomenon. Hematol Pathol. 1988;2:121-143.
404. Benifla JL, Madelenat P. Hyperstimulation ofareienne et risque thrombogene. Arteres et Veines. 1990;8:748.
405. Clarke CS, Otridge BW, Carney DN. Thromboembolism: a complication of weekly chemotherapy in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer. 1990;66:2027-2030.
406. Prins MH, Hirsh J. A critical review of the evidence supporting a relationship between impaired fibrinolytic activity and venous thromboembolism. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1721-1731.
407. Le DT, Griffin JH, Greengard JS, Mujumdar V, Rapaport SI. Use of a generally applicable tissue factor-dependent factor V assay to detect activated protein C-resistant factor Va in patients receiving warfarin and in patients with a lupus anticoagulant. Blood. 1995; 85:1704-1711.
408. Conley CL, Rathburn HK, Monse WI II, Robinson JE Jr. Circulating anticoagulant as a cause of hemorrhagic diathesis in man. Bull Johns Hopkins Hospital. 1948;83:288-296.
409. Bowie EJW, Thompson JH, Pascuzzi CA, Owen CA Jr. Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus despite circulating anticoagulants. J Lab Clin Med. 1963;62:416-430.
410. Asherson RA, Khamashta MA, Ordi-Ros J, Derksen RH, Machin SJB, Barquinero J, Outt HH, Harris EN, Vilardell-Torres M, Hughes GR. The primary antiphospholipid syndrome: major clinical and serological features. Medicine (Baltimore). 1989;68: 366-374.
411. Alarcon-Segovia D, Deleze M, Oria CV, Sanchez-Guerrero J, Gomez-Pacheco L, Cabiedes J, Fernandez L, Ponce de Leon S. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the antiphospholipid syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective analysis of 500 consecutive patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 1989;68:353-365.
412. Love PE, Santoro SA. Antiphospholipid antibodies: anticardiolipin and the lupus anticoagulant in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and in non-SLE disorders: prevalence and clinical significance. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:682-698.
413. Lockshin MD. Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. JAMA. 1992; 268:1451-1453.
414. Kitchens CS. Prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time of unknown etiology: a prospective study of 100 consecutive cases referred for consultation. Am J Hematol. 1988;27:38-45.
415. Derksen RHWM, Hasselaar P, Blokzijl L, Gmelig Meyling FH, De Groot PG. Coagulation screen is more specific than the anticardiolipin antibody ELISA in defining a thrombotic subset of lupus patients. Ann Rheum Dis. 1988;47:364-371.
416. Harris EN, Gharavi AE, Boey ML, Patel BM, Mackworth-Young CG, Loizou S, Hughes GR. Anticardiolipin antibodies: detection by radioimmunoassay and association with thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet. 1983;2:1211-1214.
417. Triplett DA, Brandt JT, Musgrave KA, Orr CA. The relationship between lupus anticoagulants and antibodies to phosphilipid. JAMA. 1988;259:550-554.
418. Levine SR, Kieran S, Puzio K, Feit H, Patel SC, Welch KM. Cerebral venous thrombosis with lupus anticoagulants: report of two cases. Stroke. 1987;18:801-804.
419. Moreb J, Kitchens CS. Acquired functional protein S deficiency, cerebral venous thrombosis, and coumarin skin necrosis in association with antiphospholipid syndrome: report of two cases. Am J Med. 1989;87:207-210.
420. Pertuiset E, Tribout B, Wechsler B, Bellin MF, Godeau P, Jian R, Rambaud JC. Systemic lupus erythematosus presenting with portal venous thrombosis. Am J Med. 1989;86:501-502.
421. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital - weekly clinicopathological exercises: case 11-1990, a 38-year-old woman with fever, skin lesions, thrombocytopenia, and venous thromboses. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:754-769.
422. Glueck HI, Kant KS, Weiss MA, Pollak VE, Miller MA, Coots M. Thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: relation to the presence of circulating anticoagulants. Arch Intern Med. 1985;145: 1389-1395.
423. Mintz G, Acevedo-Vazquez E, Gutierrez-Espinosa G, Avelar-Garnica F. Renal vein thrombosis and inferior vena cava thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: frequency and risk factors. Arthritis Rheum. 1984;27:539-544.
424. Yap AS, Powell EE, Yelland CE, Mortimer RH, Perry-Keene DA. Lupus anticoagulant. Ann Intern Med. 1989;111:262-263.
425. Lechner K, Pabinger-Fasching I. Lupus anticoagulants and thrombosis: a study of 25 cases and review of the literature. Haemostasis. 1985;15:254-262.
426. Gastineau DA, Kazmier FJ, Nichols WL, Bowie EJ. Lupus anticoagulant: an analysis of the clinical and laboratory features of 219 cases. Am J Hematol. 1985;19:265-275.
427. Gardlund B. The lupus inhibitor in thromboembolic disease and intrauterine death in the absence of systemic lupus. Acta Med Scand. 1984;215:293-298.
428. Asherson RA, Merry P, Acheson JF, Harris EN, Hughes GR. Antiphospholipid antibodies: a risk factor for occlusive ocular vascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus and the 'primary antiphospholipid syndrome.' Ann Rheum Dis. 1989;48:358-361.
429. Heckerling PS, Froelich CJ, Schade SG. Retinal vein thrombosis in a patient with pernicious anemia and anticardiolipin antibodies. J Rheumatol. 1989;16:1144-1146.
430. Rao RH, Vagnucci AH, Amico JA. Bilateral massive adrenal hemorrhage: early recognition and treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1989;110:227-235.
431. Carette S, Jobin F. Acute adrenal insufficiency as a manifestation of the anticardiolipin syndrome? Ann Rheum Dis. 1989;48: 430-431.
432. Alperin N, Babu S, Weinstein A. Acute adrenal insufficiency and the antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1989;111:950. Letter.
433. Pope JM, Canny CLB, Bell DA. Cerebral ischemic events associated with endocarditis, retinal vascular disease, and lupus anticoagulant. Am J Med. 1991;90:299-309.
434. Ostermiller W Jr, Carter R. Mesenteric venous thrombosis secondary to polycythemia vera. Am Surg. 1969;35:407-409.
435. Kneeland JB, Auh YH, Zirinsky K, Rubenstein W, Kazam E. MR, CT, and ultrasonographic demonstration of splenic vein thrombosis. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1984;8:1199-1200.
436. Shaldon S, Sherlock L. Portal hypertension in the myeoloproliferative syndrome and the reticuloses. Am J Med. 1962;32:758-764.
437. Conlan MG, Haire WD. Low protein S in essential thrombocythemia with thrombosis. Am J Hematol. 1989;32:88-93.
438. Teofili L, De Stefano V, Leone G, Micalizzi P, Iovino MS, Alfano G, Bizzi B. Hematological causes of venous thrombosis in young people: high incidence of myeloproliferative disorder as underlying disease in patients with splanchnic venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1992;67:297-301.
439. White CL, Brewer ML, Witte MH, Pond GB. Protean manifestations of pylethrombosis: a review of thirty-four patients. Ann Surg. 1985;202:191-202.
440. Wasserman LR, Gilbert HS. Complications of polycythemia vera. Semin Hematol. 1966;3:199-208.
441. Jabaily J, Hand HJ, Laszlo J, Massey EW, Faguet GB, Briere J, Landaw SA, Pisciotta AV. Neurologic manifestations of essential thrombocythemia. Ann Intern Med. 1983;99:513-518.
442. Singh AK, Wetherley-Mein G. Microvascular occlusive lesions in primary thrombocythaemia. Br J Haematol. 1977;36:553-564.
443. Conley CL. Polycythemia vera. JAMA. 1990;263:2481-2483.
444. Anagrelide Study Group. Anagrelide, a therapy for thrombocythemic states: experience in 577 patients. Am J Med. 1992;92: 69-76.
445. CorteJazzo S, Viero P, Finazzi G, D'Emilio A, Rodeghiero F, Barbui T. Incidence and risk factors for thrombotic complications in a historical cohort of 100 patients with essential thrombocythemia. J Clin Oncol. 1990;8:556-562.
446. Cortelazzo S, Finazzi G, Ruggeri M, Vestri O, Galli M, Rodeghiero F, Barbui T. Hydroxyurea for patients with essential thrombocythemia and a high risk of thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1132-1136.
447. McIntyre KJ, Hoagland HC, Silverstein MN, Petitt RM. Essential thrombocythemia in young adults. Mayo Clin Proc. 1991;66: 149-154.
448. Liu PG, Jacobs JB, Reede D. Trousseau's syndrome in the head and neck. Am J Otolaryngol. 1985;6:405-408.
449. James WD. Trousseau's syndrome. Int J Dermatol. 1984;23: 205-206.
450. Hickey WF, Garnick MB, Henderson IC, Dawson DM. Primary cerebral venous thrombosis in patients with cancer. A rarely diagnosed paraneoplastic syndrome: report of three cases and a review of the literature. Am J Med. 1982;73:740-750.
451. Sack GH Jr, Levin J, Bell WR. Trousseau's syndrome and other manifestations of chronic disseminated coagulopathy in patients with neoplasms: clinical, pathophysiologic and therapeutic features. Medicine (Baltimore). 1977;56:1-37.