Measurement of intestinal cholesterol absorption by plasma and fecal dual-isotope ratio, mass balance, and lymph fistula methods in the mouse: An analysis of direct versus indirect methodologies

Journal of Lipid Research

Volumn 44, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 1042-1059

  Wang, David Q H ^a,b   Carey, Martin C ^b  

^a BETH ISRAEL DEACONESS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Bile flow; Bile salts; Chylomicrons; Genetics; Lecithin; Nutrition; Radiolabeled sterols; Sitostanol

Indexed keywords

CHOLESTEROL; CHYLOMICRON; RADIOISOTOPE; STEROL;

ANALYTIC METHOD; ANALYTICAL ERROR; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ARTICLE; BILE FLOW; CONTROLLED STUDY; EXTRACTION; FECES; FEMALE; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTESTINE ABSORPTION; ISOTOPE LABELING; LABORATORY; LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM; LYMPH; MALE; MOUSE; MOUSE STRAIN; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; PLASMA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SOLUBILIZATION; STANDARD; VALIDATION PROCESS;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ALGORITHMS; ANIMALS; BILE ACIDS AND SALTS; BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT; CARBON RADIOISOTOPES; CHOLESTEROL; CRICETINAE; DOGS; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; FECES; FEMALE; GUINEA PIGS; HUMANS; INJECTIONS, INTRAVENOUS; INTESTINAL ABSORPTION; LYMPHATIC SYSTEM; MALE; METHODS; MICE; MICE, INBRED AKR; MICE, INBRED C57BL; MICE, INBRED STRAINS; PALMITIC ACID; PRIMATES; RABBITS; RATS; SITOSTEROLS; TIME FACTORS; TRITIUM;

EID: 0041912965     PISSN: 00222275     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1194/jlr.D200041-JLR200     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Thomson, A. B. R., and J. M. Dietschy. 1981. Intestinal lipid absorption: major extracellular and intracellular events. In Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. Second Edition. L. R. Johnson, editor. Raven Press, New York, NY. 1147-1220.
2. Grundy, S. M. 1983. Absorption and metabolism of dietary cholesterol. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 3: 71-96.
3. Wilson, M. D., and L. L. Rudel. 1994. Review of cholesterol absorption with emphasis on dietary and biliary cholesterol. J. Lipid Res. 35: 943-955.
4. Zilversmit, D. B. 1972. A single blood sample dual isotope method for the measurement of cholesterol absorption in rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 140: 862-865.
5. Wang, D. Q-H., F. Lammert, D. E. Cohen, B. Paigen, and M. C. Carey. 1999. Cholic acid aids absorption, biliary secretion, and phase transitions of cholesterol in murine cholelithogenesis. Am. J. Physiol. 276: G751-G760.
6. Wang, D. Q-H., B. Paigen, and M. C. Carey. 2001. Genetic factors at the enterocyte level account for variations in intestinal cholesterol absorption efficiency among inbred strains of mice. J. Lipid Res. 42: 1820-1830.
7. Borgström, B. 1968. Quantitative aspects of the intestinal absorption and metabolism of cholesterol and β-sitosterol in the rat. J. Lipid Res. 9: 473-481.
8. Grundy, S. M., E. H. Ahrens, Jr., and G. Salen. 1968. Dietary β-sitosterol as an internal standard to correct for cholesterol losses in sterol balance studies. J. Lipid Res. 9: 374-387.
9. Turley, S. D., B. P. Daggy, and J. M. Dietschy. 1994. Psyllium augments the cholesterol-lowering action of cholestyramine in hamsters by enhancing sterol loss from the liver. Gastroenterology. 107: 444-452.
10. Grundy, S. M., and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1969. Measurements of cholesterol turnover, synthesis, and absorption in man, carried out by isotope kinetic and sterol balance methods. J. Lipid Res. 10: 91-107.
11. Grundy, S. M., E. H. Ahrens, Jr., and T. A. Miettinen. 1965. Quantitative isolation and gas-liquid chromatographic analysis of total fecal bile acids. J. Lipid Res. 6: 397-410.
12. Miettinen, T. A., E. H. Ahrens, Jr., and S. M. Grundy. 1965. Quantitative isolation and gas-liquid chromatographic analysis of total dietary and fecal neutral steroids. J. Lipid Res. 6: 411-424.
13. 14. J. Biol. Chem. 194: 407-412.
14. Sylvén, C., and B. Borgström. 1968. Absorption and lymphatic transport of cholesterol in the rat. J. Lipid Res. 9: 596-601.
15. Hellman, L., E. L. Frazell, and R. S. Rosenfeld. 1960. Direct measurement of cholesterol absorption via the thoracic duct in man. J. Clin. Invest. 39: 1288-1294.
16. Sylvén, C., and B. Borgström. 1969. Absorption and lymphatic transport of cholesterol and sitosterol in the rat. J. Lipid Res. 10: 179-182.
17. Vahouny, G. V., T. Roy, L. L. Gallo, J. A. Story, D. Kritchevsky, M. Cassidy, B. M. Grund, and C. R. Treadwell. 1978. Dietary fiber and lymphatic absorption of cholesterol in the rat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: S208-S210.
18. Zilversmit, D. B., and L. B. Hughes. 1974. Validation of a dual-isotope plasma ratio method for measurement of cholesterol absorption in rats. J. Lipid Res. 15: 465-473.
19. Balmer, J., and D. B. Zilversmit. 1974. Effects of dietary roughage on cholesterol absorption, cholesterol turnover and steroid excretion in the rat. J. Nutr. 104: 1319-1328.
20. Cohen, B. I., N. Ayyad, T. Mikami, Y. Mikami, and E. H. Mosbach. 1994. Effects of dietary fat and fatty acids on sterol balance in hamsters. Lipids. 29: 503-508.
21. Turley, S. D., M. W. Herndon, and J. M. Dietschy. 1994. Reevaluation and application of the dual-isotope plasma ratio method for the measurement of intestinal cholesterol absorption in the hamster. J. Lipid Res. 35: 328-339.
22. Traber, M. G., and R. Ostwald. 1978. Cholesterol absorption and steroid excretion in cholesterol-fed guinea pigs. J. Lipid Res. 19: 448-456.
23. Zilversmit, D. B., F. C. Courtice, and R. Fraser. 1967. Cholesterol transport in thoracic duct lymph of the rabbit. J. Atheroscler. Res. 7: 319-325.
24. Redgrave, T. G. 1973. Cholesterol feeding alters the metabolism of thoracic-duct lymph lipoprotein cholesterol in rabbits but not in rats. Biochem. J. 136: 109-113.
25. Heider, J. G., C. E. Pickens, and L. A. Kelly. 1983. Role of acyl CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase in cholesterol absorption and its inhibition by 57-118 in the rabbit. J. Lipid Res. 24: 1127-1134.
26. Massaro, E. R., and D. B. Zilversmit. 1977. Controlling factors in the maintenance of plasma cholesterol concentration in the rabbit. J. Nutr. 107: 596-605.
27. Huff, M. W., and K. K. Carroll. 1980. Effects of dietary protein on turnover, oxidation, and absorption of cholesterol, and on steroid excretion in rabbits. J. Lipid Res. 21: 546-548.
28. Melchior, G. W., and J. F. Harwell. 1985. Cholesterol absorption and turnover in hypercholesterolemic dogs. J. Lipid Res. 26: 306-315.
29. Melchior, G. W., R. W. Mahley, and D. K. Buckhold. 1981. Chylomicron metabolism during dietary-induced hypercholesterolemia in dogs. J. Lipid Res. 22: 598-609.
30. Pertsemlidis, D., E. H. Kirchman, and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1973. Regulation of cholesterol metabolism in the dog. I. Effects of complete bile diversion and of cholesterol feeding on absorption, synthesis, accumulation, and excretion rates measured during life. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 2353-2367.
31. Klein, R. L., and L. L. Rudel. 1983. Cholesterol absorption and transport in thoracic duct lymph lipoproteins of nonhuman primates. Effect of dietary cholesterol level. J. Lipid Res. 24: 343-356.
32. Klein, R. L., and L. L. Rudel. 1983. Effect of dietary cholesterol level on the composition of thoracic duct lymph lipoproteins isolated from nonhuman primates. J. Lipid Res. 24: 357-367.
33. Lofland, H. B., Jr., T. B. Clarkson, R. W. St. Clair, and N. D. M. Lehner. 1972. Studies on the regulation of plasma cholesterol levels in squirrel monkeys of two genotypes. J. Lipid Res. 13: 39-47.
34. Eggen, D. A. 1974. Cholesterol metabolism in rhesus monkey, squirrel monkey, and baboon. J. Lipid Res. 15: 139-145.
35. Mott, G. E., E. M. Jackson, and M. D. Morris. 1980. Cholesterol absorption in baboons. J. Lipid Res. 21: 635-641.
36. Corey, J. E., and K. C. Hayes. 1975. Validation of a dual-isotope plasma ratio technique as a measure of cholesterol absorption in Old and New World monkeys. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 148: 842-846.
37. Bhattacharyya, A. K., and D. A. Eggen. 1980. Cholesterol absorption and turnover in rhesus monkeys as measured by two methods. J. Lipid Res. 21: 518-524.
38. Bhattacharyya, A. K., and D. A. Eggen. 1987. Relationships between dietary cholesterol, cholesterol absorption, cholesterol synthesis, and plasma cholesterol in rhesus monkeys. Atherosclerosis. 67: 33-39.
39. Borgström, B., S. Radner, and B. Werner. 1970. Lymphatic transport of cholesterol in the human being. Effect of dietary cholesterol. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 26: 227-235.
40. Doi, S. Q., H. Meinertz, K. Nilausen, E. C. Faria, and E. C. Quintão. 1987. Intestinal cholesterol absorption in the chyluria model. J. Lipid Res. 28: 1129-1136.
41. Quintão, E., S. M. Grundy, and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1971. An evaluation of four methods for measuring cholesterol absorption by the intestine in man. J. Lipid Res. 12: 221-232.
42. Connor, W. E., and D. S. Lin. 1974. The intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol by hypercholesterolemic (type 11) and normocholesterolemic humans. J. Clin. Invest. 53: 1062-1070.
43. Lin, D. S., and W. E. Connor. 1980. The long term effects of dietary cholesterol upon the plasma lipids, lipoproteins, cholesterol absorption, and the sterol balance in man: the demonstration of feedback inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis and increased bile acid excretion. J. Lipid Res. 21: 1042-1052.
44. Samuel, P., J. P. Crouse, and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1978. Evaluation of an isotope ratio method for measurement of cholesterol absorption in man. J. Lipid Res. 19: 82-93.
45. McNamara, D. J., N. O. Davidson, P. Samuel, and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1980. Cholesterol absorption in man: effect of administration of clofibrate and/or cholestyramine. J. Lipid Res. 21: 1058-1064.
46. Simons, L. A., J. C. Gibson, C. Paino, M. Hosking, J. Bullock, and J. Trim. 1978. The influence of a wide range of absorbed cholesterol on plasma cholesterol levels in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 31: 1334-1339.
47. Quintão, E., S. M. Grundy, and E. H. Ahrens, Jr. 1971. Effects of dietary cholesterol on the regulation of total body cholesterol in man. J. Lipid Res. 12: 233-247.
48. Borgström, B. 1969. Quantification of cholesterol absorption in man by fecal analysis after the feeding of a single isotope-labeled meal. J. Lipid Res. 10: 331-337.
49. Carter, C. P., P. N. Howles, and D. Y. Hui. 1997. Genetic variation in cholesterol absorption efficiency among inbred strains of mice. J. Nutr. 127: 1344-1348.
50. Schwarz, M., D. L. Davis, B. R. Vick, and D. W. Russell. 2001. Genetic analysis of intestinal cholesterol absorption in inbred mice. J. Lipid Res. 42: 1801-1811.
51. Schwarz, M., D. L. Davis, B. R. Vick, and D. W. Russell. 2001. Genetic analysis of cholesterol accumulation in inbred mice. J. Lipid Res. 42: 1812-1819.
52. Dueland, S., J. Drisko, L. Graf, D. Machleder, A. J. Lusis, and R. A. Davis. 1993. Effect of dietary cholesterol and taurocholate on cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase and hepatic LDL receptors in inbred mice. J. Lipid Res. 34: 923-931.
53. Kirk, E. A., G. L. Moe, M. T. Caldwell, J. A. Lernmark, D. L. Wilson, and R. C. LeBoeuf. 1995. Hyper- and hypo-responsiveness to dietary fat and cholesterol among inbred mice: searching for level and variability genes. J. Lipid Res. 36: 1522-1532.
54. Mouzeyan, A., J. Choi, H. Allayee, X. Wang, J. Sinsheimer, J. Phan, L. W. Castellani, K. Reue, A. J. Lusis, and R. C. Davis. 2000. A locus conferring resistance to diet-induced hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis on mouse chromosome 2. J. Lipid Res. 41: 573-582.
55. Sehayek, E., J. G. Ono, S. Shefer, L. B. Nguyen, N. Wang, A. K. Batta, G. Salen, J. D. Smith, A. R. Tall, and J. L. Breslow. 1998. Biliary cholesterol excretion: a novel mechanism that regulates dietary cholesterol absorption. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95: 10194-10199.
56. Sehayek, E., S. Shefer, L. B. Nguyen, J. G. Ono, M. Merkel, and J. L. Breslow. 2000. Apolipoprotein E regulates dietary cholesterol absorption and biliary cholesterol excretion: studies in C57BL/6 apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 97: 3433-3437.
57. Weinstock, P. H., C. L. Bisgaier, T. Hayek, K. Aalto-Setala, E. Sehayek, L. Wu, P. Sheiffele, M. Merkel, A. D. Essenburg, and J. L. Breslow. 1997. Decreased HDL cholesterol levels but normal lipid absorption, growth, and feeding behavior in apolipoprotein A-IV knockout mice. J. Lipid Res. 38: 1782-1794.
58. Jolley, C. D., J. M. Dietschy, and S. D. Turley. 1999. Genetic differences in cholesterol absorption in 129/Sv and C57BL/6 mice: effect on cholesterol responsiveness. Am. J. Physiol. 276: G1117-G1124.
59. Young, S. C., and D. Y. Hui. 1999. Pancreatic lipase/colipase-mediated triacylglycerol hydrolysis is required for cholesterol transport from lipid emulsions to intestinal cells. Biochem. J. 339: 615-620.
60. Howles, P. N., C. P. Carter, and D. Y. Hui. 1996. Dietary free and esterified cholesterol absorption in cholesterol esterase (bile salt-stimulated lipase) gene-targeted mice. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 7196-7202.
61. McNeish, J., R. J. Aiello, D. Guyot, T. Turi, C. Gabel, C. Aldinger, K. L. Hoppe, M. L. Roach, L. J. Royer, J. De Wet, C. Broccardo, G. Chimini, and O. L. Francone. 2000. High density lipoprotein deficiency and foam cell accumulation in mice with targeted disruption of ATP-binding cassette transporter-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 97: 4245-4250.
62. Akiyoshi, T., K. Uchida, H. Takase, Y. Nomura, and N. Takeuchi. 1986. Cholesterol gallstones in alloxan-diabetic mice. J. Lipid Res. 27: 915-924.
63. Uchida, K., H. Takase, Y. Nomura, K. Takeda, N. Takeuchi, and Y. Ishikawa. 1984. Changes in biliary and fecal bile acids in mice after treatments with diosgenin and β-sitosterol. J. Lipid Res. 25: 236-245.
64. Turley, S. D., M. Schwarz, D. K. Spady, and J. M. Dietschy. 1998. Gender-related differences in bile acid and sterol metabolism in outbred CD-1 mice fed low- and high-cholesterol diets. Hepatology. 28: 1088-1094.
65. Whiting, M. J., and J. M. Watts. 1987. Role of cholic acid in the dietary induction of cholesterol gall-bladder stones in mice. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2: 547-555.
66. Reynier, M. O., J. C. Montet, A. Gerolami, C. Marteau, C. Crotte, A. M. Montet, and S. Mathieu. 1981. Comparative effects of cholic, chenodeoxycholic, and ursodeoxycholic acids on micellar solubilization and intestinal absorption of cholesterol. J. Lipid Res. 22: 467-473.
67. Li-Hawkins, J., E. G. Lund, S. D. Turley, and D. W. Russell. 2000. Disruption of the oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase gene in mice. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 16536-16542.
68. Schwarz, M., D. W. Russell, J. M. Dietschy, and S. D. Turley. 1998. Marked reduction in bile acid synthesis in cholesterol 7α -hydroxylase-deficient mice does not lead to diminished tissue cholesterol turnover or to hypercholesterolemia. J. Lipid Res. 39: 1833-1843.
69. Meiner, V. L., S. Cases, H. M. Myers, E. R. Sande, S. Bellosta, M. Schambelan, R. E. Pitas, J. McGuire, J. Herz, and R. V. Farese, Jr. 1996. Disruption of the acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase gene in mice: evidence suggesting multiple cholesterol esterification enzymes in mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93: 14041-14046.
70. Young, S. G., C. M. Cham, R. E. Pitas, B. J. Burri, A. Connolly, L. Flynn, A. S. Pappu, J. S. Wong, R. L. Hamilton, and R. V. Farese, Jr. 1995. A genetic model for absent chylomicron formation: mice producing apolipoprotein B in the liver, but not in the intestine. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 2932-2946.
71. Woollett, L. A., Y. Osono, J. Herz, and J. M. Dietschy. 1995. Apolipoprotein E competitively inhibits receptor-dependent low density lipoprotein uptake by the liver but has no effect on cholesterol absorption or synthesis in the mouse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 92: 12500-12504.
72. Drobnik, W., B. Lindenthal, B. Lieser, M. Ritter, T. C. Weber, G. Liebisch, U. Giesa, M. Igel, H. Borsukova, C. Buchler, W. P. Fung-Leung, K. Von Bergmann, and G. Schmitz. 2001. ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) affects total body sterol metabolism. Gastroenterology. 120: 1203-1211.
73. Mardones, P., V. Quiñones, L. Amigo, M. Moreno, J. F. Miquel, M. Schwarz, H. E. Miettinen, B. Trigatti, M. Krieger, S. VanPatten, D. E. Cohen, and A. Rigotti. 2001. Hepatic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and intestinal cholesterol absorption in scavenger receptor class B type I-deficient mice. J. Lipid Res. 42: 170-180.
74. Altmann, S. W., H. R. Davis, Jr., X. Yao, M. Laverty, D. S. Compton, L. Zhu, J. H. Crona, M. A. Caplen, L. M. Hoos, G. Tetzloff, T. Priestley, D. A. Burnett, C. D. Strader, and M. P. Graziano. 2002. The identification of intestinal scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI) by expression cloning and its role in cholesterol absorption. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1580: 77-93.
75. Wang, D. Q-H., and M. C. Carey. 2002. Susceptibility to murine cholesterol gallstone formation is not affected by partial disruption of the HDL receptor SR-BI. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1583: 141-150.
76. Aalto-Setälä, K., C. L. Bisgaier, A. Ho, K. A. Kieft, M. G. Traber, H. J. Kayden, R. Ramakrishnan, A. Walsh, A. D. Essenburg, and J. L. Breslow. 1994. Intestinal expression of human apolipoprotein A-IV in transgenic mice fails to influence dietary lipid absorption or feeding behavior. J. Clin. Invest. 93: 1776-1786.
77. Huang, L. S., E. Voyiaziakis, D. F. Markenson, K. A. Sokol, T. Hayek, and J. L. Breslow. 1995. Apo B gene knockout in mice results in embryonic lethality in homozygotes and neural tube defects, male infertility, and reduced HDL cholesterol ester and apo A-I transport rates in heterozygotes. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 2152-2161.
78. Voshol, P. J., R. Havinga, H. Wolters, R. Ottenhoff, H. M. Princen, R. P. Oude Elferink, A. K. Groen, and F. Kuipers. 1998. Reduced plasma cholesterol and increased fecal sterol loss in multidrug resistance gene 2 P-glycoprotein-deficient mice. Gastroenterology. 114: 1024-1034.
79. Weng, W., L. Li, A. M. Van Bennekum, S. H. Potter, E. H. Harrison, W. S. Blaner, J. L. Breslow, and E. A. Fisher. 1999. Intestinal absorption of dietary cholesteryl ester is decreased but retinyl ester absorption is normal in carboxyl ester lipase knockout mice. Biochemistry. 38: 4143-4149.
80. DeBry, R. W., and M. F. Seldin. 1996. Human/mouse homology relationships. Genomics. 33: 337-351.
81. Paigen, K. 1995. A miracle enough: the power of mice. Nat. Med. 1: 215-220.
82. Wang, D. Q-H., B. Paigen, and M. C. Carey. 1997. Phenotypic characterization of Lith genes that determine susceptibility to cholesterol cholelithiasis in inbred mice: physical-chemistry of gallbladder bile. J. Lipid Res. 38: 1395-1411.
83. Wang, D. Q-H., F. Lammert, B. Paigen, and M. C. Carey. 1999. Phenotypic characterization of Lith genes that determine susceptibility to cholesterol cholelithiasis in inbred mice: pathophysiology of biliary lipid secretion. J. Lipid Res. 40: 2066-2079.
84. Bollman, J. L., J. C. Cain, and J. H. Grindlay. 1948. Techniques for the collection of lymph from the liver, small intestine or thoracic duct of the rat. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 33: 1349-1352.
85. Warshaw, A. L. 1972. A simplified method of cannulating the intestinal lymphatic of the rat. Gut. 13: 66-67.
86. Goh, E. H., S. M. Colles, and K. D. Otte. 1989. HPLC analysis of desmosterol, 7-dehydrocholesterol, and cholesterol. Lipids. 24: 652-655.
87. Borgström, B. 1968. Quantification of cholesterol absorption in man by fecal analysis after the feeding of a single isotope-labeled meal. J. Lipid Res. 10: 331-337.
88. Heuman, D. M. 1989. Quantitative estimation of the hydrophilichydrophobic balance of mixed bile salt solutions. J. Lipid Res. 30: 719-730.
89. Charman, W. N. A., T. Noguchi, and N. J. Stella. 1986. An experimental system designed to study the in situ intestinal lymphatic transport of lipophilic drugs in anesthetized rats. Int. J. Pharm. 33: 155-164.
90. Shepherd, P., and W. J. Simmonds. 1959. Some conditions affecting the maintenance of a steady lymphatic absorption of fat. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 37: 1-9.
91. Green, M. H. 1980. Chemical and isotopic measurement of cholesterol absorption in the rat. Atherosclerosis. 37: 343-352.
92. Bloom, B., I. L. Chaikoff, W. O. Reinhardt, C. Entenman, and W. G. Dauben. 1950. The quantitative significance of the lymphatic pathway in transport of absorbed fatty acids. J. Biol. Chem. 184: 1-8.
93. Nilsson, Å., and D. B. Zilversmit. 1972. Fate of intravenously administered particulate and lipoprotein cholesterol in the rat. J. Lipid Res. 13: 32-38.
94. Beynen, A. C., M. B. Katan, and L. F. M. Van Zutphen. 1987. Hypo- and hyperresponders: individual differences in the response of serum cholesterol concentration to changes in diet. Adv. Lipid Res. 22: 115-171.
95. Wang, D. Q-H., and M. C. Carey. 1996. Complete mapping of crystallization pathways during cholesterol precipitation from model biles: influence of physical-chemical variables of pathophysiologic relevance and identification of a stable liquid crystalline state in cold, dilute and hydrophilic bile salt-containing systems. J. Lipid Res. 37: 606-630.
96. Wang, D. Q-H., and M. C. Carey. 1996. Characterization of crystallization pathways during cholesterol precipitation from human gallbladder biles: identical pathways with corresponding model biles with three predominating sequences. J. Lipid Res. 37: 2539-2549.
97. Folch, J., M. Lees, and G. H. Sloane Stanley. 1957. A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 226: 497-509.
98. The USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. http://www.nal.usda.gov.
99. Howell, T. J., D. E. MacDougall, and P. J. Jones. 1998. Phytosterols partially explain differences in cholesterol metabolism caused by corn or olive oil feeding. J. Lipid Res. 39: 892-900.
100. Pedersen, A., M. W. Baumstark, P. Marckmann, H. Gylling, and B. Sandstrom. 2000. An olive oil-rich diet results in higher concentrations of LDL cholesterol and a higher number of LDL subfraction particles than rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets. J. Lipid Res. 41: 1901-1911.
101. Plat, J., and R. P. Mensink. 2000. Vegetable oil based versus wood based stanol ester mixtures: effects on serum lipids and homeostatic factors in non-hypercholesterolemic subjects. Atherosclerosis. 148: 101-112.
102. Awad, A. B., K. C. Chan, A. C. Downie, and C. S. Fink. 2000. Peanuts as a source of β-sitosterol, a sterol with anticancer properties. Nutr. Cancer. 36: 238-241.
103. Ling, W. H., and P. J. H. Jones. 1995. Dietary phytosterols: a review of metabolism, benefits and side effects. Life Sci. 57: 195-206.
104. Woollett, L. A., D. K. Spady, and J. M. Dietschy. 1989. Mechanisms by which saturated triacylglycerols elevate the plasma low density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration in hamsters. J. Clin. Invest. 84: 119-128.
105. Woollett, L. A., D. K. Spady, and J. M. Dietschy. 1992. Regulatory effects of the saturated fatty acids 6:0 through 18:0 on hepatic low density lipoprotein receptor activity in the hamster. J. Clin. Invest. 89: 1133-1141.
106. Wang, D. Q-H., and S. Tazuma. 2002. Effect of β-muricholic acid on the prevention and dissolution of cholesterol gallstones in C57L/J mice. J. Lipid Res. 43: 1960-1968.
107. Tepperman, J., F. T. Caldwell, and H. M. Tepperman. 1964. Induction of gallstones in mice by feeding a cholesterol-cholic acid containing diet. Am. J. Physiol. 206: 628-634.
108. Ponz de Leon, M., N. Carulli, P. Loria, R. Iori, and F. Zironi. 1980. Cholesterol absorption during bile acid feeding. Effect of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) administration. Gastroenterology. 78: 214-219.
109. Wheeler, H. O. 1973. Biliary excretion of bile acids, lecithin, and cholesterol in hamsters with gallstones. Gastroenterology. 65: 92-103.
110. Uchida, K., Y. Nomura, and N. Takeuchi. 1980. Effects of cholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid and their related bile acids on cholesterol, phospholipid and bile acid levels in serum, liver, bile and feces of rats. J. Biochem. 87: 187-194.
111. Ishikawa, Y., K. Uchida, and T. Akiyoshi. 1984. Increased biliary cholesterol secretion in alloxan-diabetic mice. Jpn. J. Surg. 14: 174-183.
112. Repa, J. J., S. D. Turley, J. A. Lobaccaro, J. Medina, L. Li, K. Lustig, B. Shan, R. A. Heyman, J. M. Dietschy, and D. J. Mangelsdorf. 2000. Regulation of absorption and ABC1-mediated efflux of cholesterol by RXR heterodimers. Science. 289: 1524-1529.
113. Berge, K. E., H. Tian, G. A. Graf, L. Yu, N. V. Grishin, J. Schultz, P. Kwiterovich, B. Shan, R. Barnes, and H. H. Hobbs. 2000. Accumulation of dietary cholesterol in sitosterolemia caused by mutations in adjacent ABC transporters. Science. 290: 1771-1775.
114. Lee, M-H., K. Lu, S. Hazard, H. Yu, S. Shulenin, H. Hidaka, H. Kojima, R. Allikmets, N. Sakuma, R. Pegoraro, A. K. Srivastava, G. Salen, M. Dean, and S. B. Patel. 2001. Identification of a gene, ABCG5, important in the regulation of dietary cholesterol absorption. Nat. Genet. 27: 79-83.