Skeletal muscle metabolism in physiology and in cancer disease

Journal of Cellular Biochemistry

Volumn 90, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 170-186

  Giordano, Anna ^a,d   Calvani, Menotti ^b   Petillo, Orsolina ^d   Carteni, Maria ^a   Melone, Maria Rosa A B ^c   Peluso, Gianfranco ^d,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES FEDERICO II   (Italy)

^b Scientific Department   (Italy)

^c SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES   (Italy)

^d NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (Italy)

^e INSTITUTE OF PROTEIN BIOCHEMISTRY   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cachexia; Metabolism; Mitochondria; PPARs; Skeletal muscle; UCP

Indexed keywords

CARRIER PROTEIN; CELL ENZYME; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; SOMATOMEDIN C; UNCOUPLING PROTEIN;

ARTICLE; CACHEXIA; CANCER; ENERGY CONSUMPTION; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENERGY METABOLISM; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLYCOLYSIS; LIPID METABOLISM; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE METABOLISM; OXIDATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN METABOLISM; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ANIMALS; CACHEXIA; CARRIER PROTEINS; CYSTEINE ENDOPEPTIDASES; CYTOKINES; GLUCOSE; HUMANS; ION CHANNELS; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; MITOCHONDRIA; MITOCHONDRIAL PROTEINS; MULTIENZYME COMPLEXES; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NEOPLASMS; PROTEASOME ENDOPEPTIDASE COMPLEX; RECEPTORS, CYTOPLASMIC AND NUCLEAR; RECEPTORS, RETINOIC ACID; RETINOID X RECEPTORS; TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS; TRIGLYCERIDES; UNCOUPLING AGENTS;

EID: 0041319376     PISSN: 07302312     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10601     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Andersson U, Scarpulla RC. 2001. Pgc-1-related coactivator, a novel, seruminducible coactivator of nuclear respiratory factor 1-dependent transcription in mammalian cells. Mol Cell Biol 21:3738-3749.
2. Attaix D, Taillandier D, Combaret L, Ralliere C, Larbaud D, Aurousseau E, Tanaka K. 1997. Expression of subunits of the 19S complex and of the PA28 activator in rat skeletal muscle. Mol Biol Rep 24:95-98.
3. Baracos V, Rodeman HP, Dinarello CA, Goldberg AL. 1983. Stimulation of muscle protein degradation and prostaglandin E2 release by leukocytic pyrogen (interleukin-1). New Engl J Med 308:553-555.
4. Baracos VE, De Vivo C, Hoyle DHR, Goldberg AL. 1995. Activation of the ATP-ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in skeletal muscle of cachectic rats bearing a hepatoma. Am J Physiol 268:E996-E1006.
5. Barbe P, Larrouy D, Boulanger C, Chevillotte E, Viguerie N, Thalamas C, Trastoy MO, Roques M, Vidal H, Langin D. 2001. Triiodothyronine-mediated up-regulation of UCP2 and UCP3 mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle without coordinated induction of mitochondrial respiratory chain genes. FASEB J 15:13-15.
6. Barbier O, Torra IP, Duguay Y, Blanquart C, Fruchart JC, Glineur C, Staels B. 2002. Pleiotropic actions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22:717-726.
7. Bartlett DL, Charland SL, Torosian MH. 1994. Growth hormone, insulin, and somatostatin therapy of cancer cachexia. Cancer 73:1499-1504.
8. Beutler B. 1988. Cachexia: A fundamental mechanism. Nutr Rev 46:369-373.
9. Bing C, Brown M, King P, Collins P, Tisdale MJ, Williams G. 2000. Increased gene expression of brown fat uncoupling protein (UCP)1 and skeletal muscle UCP2 and UCP3 in MAC16-induced cancer cachexia. Cancer Res 60:2405-2410.
10. Board M, Colquhoun A, Newsholme EA. 1995. High Km glucose phosphorylating (glucokinase) activities in a range of tumor cell lines and inhibition of rates of tumor growth by the specific enzyme inhibitor mannoheptulose. Cancer Res 55:3278-3285.
11. Boss O, Samec S, Desplanches D, Mayet M, Seydoux J, Muzzin P, Giacobino JP. 1998a. Effect of endurance training on mRNA expression of uncoupling proteins 1, 2, and 3 in the rat. FASEB J 12:335-339.
12. Boss O, Samec S, Kühne F, Bijlenga P, Assimacopoulos-Jeannet F, Seydoux J, Giacobino JP, Muzzin P. 1998b. Uncoupling protein-3 expression in rodent skeletal muscle is modulated by food intake but not by changes in environmental temperature. J Biol Chem 273:5-8.
13. Bossola M, Muscaritoli M, Costelli P, Bellantone R, Pacelli F, Busquets S, Argiles J, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Civello IM, Baccino FM, Rossi Fanelli F, Doglietto GB. 2001. Increased muscle ubiquitin mRNA levels in gastric cancer patients. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 280: R1518-R1523.
14. Braissant O, Foufelle F, Scotto C, Dauca M, Wahli W. 1996. Differential expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): Tissue distribution of PPAR-alpha, -beta, and -gamma in the adult rat. Endocrinology 137:354-366.
15. Brandt JM, Djouadi F, Kelly DP. 1998. Fatty acids activate transcription of the muscle carnitine palmitoyltransferase I gene in cardiac myocytes via the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. J Biol Chem 273:786-792.
16. Busquets S, Sanchio D, Alvarez B, Ricquier D, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Argiles JM. 1998. In the rat, tumor necrosis factor α administration results in an increase in both UCP2 and UCP3 mRNA in skeletal muscle: A possible mechanism for cytokine-induced thermogenesis? FEBS Lett 440:348-350.
17. Carbo N, Costelli P, Tessitore L, Bagby GJ, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Baccino FM, Argiles JM. 1994. Anti-tumour necrosis factor treatment interferes with changes in lipid metabolism in a tumour cachexia model. Clin Sci 87:349-355.
18. Cariuk P, Lorite MJ, Todorov PT, Field WN, Wigmore SJ, Tisdale MJ. 1997. Induction of cachexia in mice by a product isolated from the urine of cachectic cancer patients. Br J Cancer 76:606-613.
19. Castelein H, Gulick T, Declercq PE, Mannaerts GP, Moore DD, Baes MI. 1994. The peroxisome proliferator activated receptor regulates malic enzyme gene expression. J Biol Chem 269:26754-26758.
20. Chrousos GP, Gold PW. 1992. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. J Am Med Assoc 267:1244-1252.
21. Clapham JC, Arch JR, Chapman H, Haynes A, Lister C, Moore GB, Piercy V, Carter SA, Lehner I, Smith SA, Beeley LJ, Godden RJ, Herrity N, Skehel M, Changani KK, Hockings PD, Reid DG, Squires SM, Hatcher J, Trail B, Latcham J, Rastan S, Harper AJ, Cadenas S, Buckingham JA, Brand MD, Abuin A. 2000. Mice overexpressing human uncoupling protein-3 in skeletal muscle are hyperphagic and lean. Nature 406:415-418.
22. Collins P, Bing C, McCulloch P, Williams G. 2002. Muscle UCP3 mRNA levels are elevated in weight loss associated with gastrointestinal adenocarcinoma in humans. Br J Cancer 86:372-375.
23. Costelli P, Llovera M, Carbo N, Garcia-Martinez C, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Argiles JM. 1995. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) is unable to reverse cachexia in rats bearing an ascites hepatoma (Yoshida AH-130). Cancer Lett 95:33-38.
24. Costelli P, Autelli R, Bonelli G, Baccino FM. 2002. Understanding the mechanisms of muscle wasting to improbe the management of several pathologies. Riv Ital Nutrizione Parenterale Enterale 20:7-12.
25. Dessì S, Batetta B, Anchisi C. 1991a. Cholesterol metabolism in normal and neoplastic cell proliferation. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2:563-568.
26. Dessì S, Batetta B, Pulisci D, Accogli P, Pani P, Broccia G. 1991b. Total and HDL cholesterol in human hematologic neoplasms. Int J Hematol 54:483-486.
27. Desvergne B, Wahli W. 1999. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: Nuclear control of metabolism. Endocr Rev 20:649-688.
28. Dice JF. 1987. Molecular determinants of protein half-lives in eukaryotic cells. FASEB J 1:349-356.
29. Djouadi F, Weinheimer CJ, Saffitz JE, Pitchford C, Bastin J, Gonzalez FJ, Kelly DP. 1998. A gender-related defect in lipid metabolism and glucose homeostasis in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-deficient mice. J Clin Invest 102:1083-1091.
30. Downer S, Joel S, Allbright A, Plant H, Stubbs L, Talbot D, Slevin M. 1993. A double blind placebo controlled trial of medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) in cancer cachexia. Br J Cancer 67:1102-1105.
31. Duckworth WC, Bennett RG, Hamel FG. 1998. Insulin acts intracellularly on proteasomes through insulin-degrading enzyme. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 244:390-394.
32. Duguez S, Feasson L, Denis C, Freyssenet D. 2002. Mitochondrial biogenesis during skeletal muscle regeneration. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282:E802-E809.
33. Ebisui C, Tsujinaka T, Morimoto T, Kan K, Iijima S, Yano M, Kominami E, Tanaka K, Monden M. 1995. Interleukin-6 induces proteolysis by activating intracellular proteases (cathepsins B and L, proteasome) in C2C12 myotubes. Clin Sci 89:431-439.
34. Emery PW, Edwards RH, Rennie MJ, Souhami RL, Halliday D. 1984. Protein synthesis in muscle measured in vivo in cachectic patients with cancer. Br Med J 289:584-586.
35. Emilsson V, O'Dowd J, Wang S, Liu YL, Sennitt M, Heyman R, Cawthorne MA. 2000. The effects of rexinoids and rosiglitazone on body weight and uncoupling protein isoform expression in the Zucker fa/fa rat. Metabolism 49:1610-1615.
36. Evans MJ, Scarpulla RC. 1990. NRF-1: A trans-activator of nuclear-encoded respiratory genes in animal cells. Genes Dev 4:1023-1034.
37. Fearon KC, Preston T. 1990. Body composition in cancer cachexia. Infusionstherapie 17:63-66.
38. Felig P. 1975. Amino acid metabolism in man. Ann Rev Biochem 44:933-955.
39. Ferry G, Bruneau V, Beauverger P, Goussard M, Rodriguez M, Lamamy V, Dromaint S, Canet E, Galizzi JP, Boutin JA. 2001. Binding of prostaglandins to human PPAR-gamma: Tool assessment and new natural ligands. Eur J Pharmacol 417:77-89.
40. Fleury C, Neverova M, Collins S, Raimbault S, Champigny O, Levi-Meyrueis C, Bouillaud F, Seldin MF, Surwit RS, Ricquier D, Warden CH. 1997. Uncoupling protein-2: A novel gene linked to obesity and hyperinsulinemia. Nat Genet 15:269-273.
41. Gong DW, He Y, Karas M, Reitman M. 1997. Uncoupling-protein-3 is a mediator of thermogenesis regulated by thyroid hormone, β3-adrenergic agonists and leptin. J Biol Chem 272:24129-24132.
42. Gong DW, He Y, Reitman ML. 1999. Genomic organization and regulation by dietary fat of the uncoupling protein 3 and 2 genes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 256:27-32.
43. Guerre-Millo M, Gervois P, Raspe E, Madsen L, Poulain P, Derudas B, Herbert JM, Winegar DA, Willson TM, Fruchart JC, Berge RK, Staels B. 2000. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activators improve insulin sensitivity and reduce adiposity. J Biol Chem 275:16638-16642.
44. Gulick T, Cresci S, Caira T, Moore DD, Kelly DP. 1994. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor regulates mitochondrial fatty acid oxidative enzyme gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:11012-11016.
45. Guttridge DC, Mayo MW, Madrid LV, Wang CY, Baldwin AS. 2000. NF-kappaB-induced loss of MyoD messenger RNA: Possible role in muscle decay and cachexia. Science 289:2363-2366.
46. Hasselgren PO. 1999. Glucocorticoids and muscle catabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2:201-205.
47. Hasselgren PO, Fischer JE. 2001. Muscle cachexia: Current concepts of intracellular mechanisms and molecular regulation. Ann Surg 233:9-17.
48. Herzig RP, Scacco S, Scarpulla RC. 2000. Sequential serum-dependent activation of CREB and NRF-1 leads to enhanced mitochondrial respiration through the induction of cytochrome c. J Biol Chem 275:13134-13141.
49. Heslin MJ, Newman E, Wolf RF, Pisters PW, Brennan MF. 1992. Effect of systemic hyperinsulinemia in cancer patients. Cancer Res 52:3845-3850.
50. Himms-Hagen J. 1984. Thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue as an energy buffer. Implications for obesity. N Engl J Med 311:1549-1558.
51. Inui A. 2002. Cancer anorexia-cachexia syndrome: Current issues in research and management. Cancer J Clin 52:72-91.
52. Isaksson B, El-Ella GA, Arnelo U, Larsson J, Permert J, Adrian TE. 2002. Skeletal muscle insulin resistance in pancreatic cancer patients is associated with increased expression of UCP2 and 3. Pancreatology 2:217-361.
53. Ito Y, Azrolan N, O'Connel A, Walsh A, Breslow JL. 1990. Hypertriglyceridemia as a result of human apo CIII gene expression in transgenic mice. Science 249:790-793.
54. Jezek P, Engstová H, Zácková M, Vercesi AE, Cost ADT, Arruda P, Garlid KD. 1998. Fatty acid cycling mechanism and mitochondrial uncoupling proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta 1365:319-327.
55. Kern KA, Norton JA. 1988. Cancer cachexia. J Parent Ent Nutr 2:286-298.
56. Kersten S, Seydoux J, Peters JM, Gonzalez FJ, Desvergne B, Wahli W. 1999. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha mediates the adaptive response to fasting. J Clin Invest 103:1489-1498.
57. Kliewer SA, Xu HE, Lambert MH, Willson TM. 2001. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: From genes to physiology. Recent Prog Horm Res 56:239-263.
58. Klingenberg M, Echtay KS, Bienengraeber M, Winkler E, Huang SG. 1999. Structure-function relationship in UCP1. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23:S24-S29.
59. Knutti D, Kressler D, Kralli A. 2001. Regulation of the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1 via MAPK-sensitive interaction with a repressor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:9713-9718.
60. Kunz WS. 2001. Control of oxidative phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. Biochim Biophys Acta 1504:12-19.
61. Ladner JK, Caligiuri MA, Guttridge DC. 2003. Tumor necrosis factor-regulated biphasic activation of NF-κB is required for cytokine-induced loss of skeletal muscle gene products. J Biol Chem 278:2294-2303.
62. Lanza-Jacoby S, Lansey SG, Miller EE, Clesr MP. 1984. Sequential changes in the activities of lipoprotein lipase and lipogenic enzymes during tumor growth in the rat. Cancer Res 44:5062-5067.
63. Lapsys NM, Kriketos AD, Lim-Fraser M, Poynten AM, Lowy A, Furler SM, Chisholm DJ, Cooney GJ. 2000. Expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism correlate with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma expression in human skeletal muscle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:4293-4297.
64. Lehman JJ, Barger PM, Kovacs A, Saf-fitz JE, Medeiros DM, Kelly DP. 2000. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 promotes cardiac mitochondrial biogenesis. J Clin Invest 106:847-856.
65. Lehmann JM, Moore LB, Smith-Oliver TA, Wilkison WO, Willson TM, Kliewer SA. 1995. An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand for peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) J Biol Chem 270:12953-1295.
66. Leone TC, Weinheimer CJ, Kelly DP. 1999. A critical role for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-alpha) in the cellular fasting response: The PPARalpha-null mouse as a model of fatty acid oxidation disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7473-7478.
67. Lexell J, Downham D, Sjôstrôm M. 1984. Distribution of different fiber types in human skeletal muscles: A statistical and computational study of the fiber type arrangement in m. vastus lateralis of young, healthy males. J Neurol Sci 65:353-365.
68. Llovera M, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Argiles JM. 1993. Effects of tumor necrosis factor-α on muscle protein turnover in female Wistar rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 85:1334-1339.
69. Llovera M, Garcia-Martinez C, Agell N, Marzabal M, Lopez-Soriano FJ, Argiles JM. 1994. Ubiquitin gene expression is increased in skeletal muscle of tumour-bearing rats. FEBS Lett 338:311-318.
70. Lowell BB, Spiegelman BM. 2000. Towards a molecular understanding of adaptive thermogenesis. Nature 404:652-660.
71. Matthys P, Dijkmans R, Proost P, Van Damme J, Heremans H, Sobis H, Billiau A. 1991. Severe cachexia in mice inoculated with interferon-γ -producing tumour cells. Int J Cancer 49:77-82.
72. McGarry JD, Brown NF. 1997. The mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase system: From concept to molecular analysis. Eur J Biochem 224:1-14.
73. Michael LF, Wu Z, Cheatham RB, Puigserver P, Adelmant G, Lehman JJ, Kelly DP, Spiegelman BM. 2001. Restoration of insulin-sensitive glucose transporter (GLUT4) gene expression in muscle cells by the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:3820-3825.
74. Mitch WE, Price SR. 2001. Transcription factors and muscle cachexia: Is there a therapeutic target? Lancet 357:734-735.
75. Mitchell P. 1966. Chemiosmotic coupling in oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation. Biol Rev 41:445-502.
76. Muoio DM, Way JM, Tanner CJ, Winegar DA, Kliewer SA, Houmard JA, Kraus WE, Dohm GL. 2002a. Peroxisome prociferator-activated receptor-alpha regulates fatty acid utilization in primary human skeletal muscle cells. Diabetes 51:901-909.
77. Muoio DM, MacLean PS, Lang DB, Li S, Houmard JA, Way JM, Winegar DA, Christopher Corton J, Lynis Dohm G, Kraus WE. 2002b. Fatty acid homeostasis and induction of lipid regulatory genes in skeletal muscles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) α knock-out mice. J Biol Chem 277:26089-26097.
78. Nègre-Salvayre A, Hirtz C, Carrera G, Cazenave R, Troly M, Salvayre R, Pénicaud L, Casteilla L. 1997. A role for uncoupling protein-2 as a regulator of mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide generation. FASEB J 11:809-815.
79. Nordfors HJ, Nyberg TA, Arner P, Schalling M, Lönnqvist F. 1998. Reduced gene expression of UCP2 but not UCP3 in skeletal muscle of human obese subjects. Diabetologia 41:935-939.
80. Norton JA, Stein TP, Brennan MF. 1981. Whole body protein synthesis and turnover in normal man and malnourished patients with and without cancer. Ann Surg 194:123-128.
81. Oberkofler H, Liu YM, Esterbauer H, Hell E, Krempler F, Patsch W. 1998. Uncoupling protein-2 gene: Reduced mRNA expression in intraperitoneal adipose tissue of obese humans. Diabetologia 41:940-946.
82. Oliver WR, Jr., Shenk JL, Snaith MR, Russell CS, Plunket KD, Bodkin NL, Lewis MC, Winegar DA, Sznaidman ML, Lambert MH, Xu HE, Sternbach DD, Kliewer SA, Hansen BC, Willson TM. 2001. A selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist promotes reverse cholesterol transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:5306-5311.
83. Pearson SL, Cawthorne MA, Clapham JC, Dunmore SJ, Holmes SD, Moore GB, Smith SA, Tadayyon M. 1996. The thiazolidinedione insulin sensitizer, BRL 49653, increases the expression of PPAR-gamma and aP2 in adipose tissue of high-fat-fed rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 229:752-757.
84. Pilegaard H, Ordway GA, Saltin B, Neufer PD. 2000. Transcriptional regulation of gene expression in human skeletal muscle during recovery from exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279:E806-E814.
85. Poirier H, Niot I, Monnot MC, Braissant O, Meunier-Durmort C, Costet P, Pineau T, Wahli W, Willson TM, Besnard P. 2001. Differential involvement of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors alpha and delta in fibrate and fatty-acid-mediated inductions of the gene encoding liver fatty-acid-binding protein in the liver and the small intestine. Biochem J 355:481-488.
86. Puigserver P, Wu Z, Park CW, Graves R, Wright M, Spiegelman BM. 1998. A cold-inducible coactivator of nuclear receptors linked to adaptative thermogenesis. Cell 92:829-839.
87. Rodeman HP, Goldberg AL. 1982. Arachidonic acid, prostaglandin E2 and F2α influence rates of protein turnover in skeletal and cardiac muscle. J Biol Chem 257:1632-1638.
88. Rosen ED, Spiegelman BM. 2001. PPARγ: A nuclear regulator of metabolism, differentiation, and cell growth. J Biol Chem 276:37731-37734.
89. Rothwell NJ, Saville ME, Stock MJ. 1984. Brown fat activity in fasted and refed rats. Biosci Rep 4:351-357.
90. Scarpulla RC. 1996. Nuclear respiratory factors and the pathway of nuclear-mitochondrial interaction. Trends Cardiovasc Med 6:39-45.
91. Schoonjans K, Peinado-Onsurbe J, Lefebvre AM, Heyman RA, Briggs M, Deeb S, Staels B, Auwerx J. 1996. PPARalpha and PPARgamma activators direct a distinct tissue-specific transcriptional response via a PPRE in the lipoprotein lipase gene. EMBO J 15:5336-5348.
92. Schrauwen P, Troost FJ, Xia J, Ravussin E, Saris WHM. 1999. Skeletal muscle UCP2 and UCP3 expression in trained and untrained male subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23:966-972.
93. Schrauwen P, Schaart G, Saris WHM, Slieker LJ, Glatz JFC, Vidal H, Blaak EE. 2000. The effect of weight reduction on skeletal muscle UCP2 and UCP3 mRNA expression and UCP3 protein content in type II diabetic subjects. Diabetologia 43:1408-1416.
94. Schrauwen P, Hoppeler H, Billeter R, Bakker A, Pendergast D. 2001. Fiber type dependent upregulation of human skeletal muscle UCP2 and UCP3 mRNA expression by high-fat diet. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25:449-456.
95. Skulachev VP. 1998. Uncoupling: New approaches to an old problem of bioenergetics. Biochim Biophys Acta 1363:100-124.
96. Smith HJ, Lorite MJ, Tisdale MJ. 1999. Effect of a cancer cachectic factor on protein synthesis/degradation in murine C2C12 myoblasts: Modulation by eicosapentaenoic acid. Cancer Res 59:5507-5513.
97. Staels B, Dallongeville J, Auwerx J, Schoonjans K, Leitersdorf E, Fruchart JC. 1998. Mechanism of action of fibrates on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. Circulation 98:2088-2093.
98. Starnes HFJ, Warren RS, Jeevanandam H, Gabrilove JL, Larchian W, Othgen HF, Brennan MF. 1988. Tumor necrosis factor and the acute metabolic response to tissue injury in man. J Clin Invest 82:1321-1325.
99. Temparis S, Asensi M, Taillandier D, Aurousseau E, Larbaud D, Obled A, Becket D, Ferrara M, Estrela JM, Attaix D. 1994. Increased ATP-ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis in skeletal muscles of tumor-bearing rats. Cancer Res 54:5568-5573.
100. Tessitore L, Costelli P, Baccino FM. 1993. Humoral mediation for cachexia in tumour-bearing rats. Br J Cancer 67:15-23.
101. Tisdale MJ. 1997. Biology of cachexia. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:1763-1773.
102. Tisdale MJ. 2001. Skeletal muscle in cancer: Biochemical mechanisms. Front Biosci 6:d164-d174.
103. Tisdale MJ. 2002. Cachexia in cancer patients. Nat Rev Cancer 2:862-871.
104. Tordjman K, Bernal-Mizrachi C, Zemany L, Weng S, Feng C, Zhang F, Leone TC, Coleman T, Kelly DP, Semenkovich CF. 2001. PPARalpha deficiency reduces insulin resistance and atherosclerosis in apoE-null mice. J Clin Invest 107:1025-1034.
105. Umpleby AM, Russel-Jones DL. 1996. The hormonal control of protein metabolism. In: Russel-Jones DL, Umpleby AM, editors. Bailliere's clinical and endocrinological metabolism. Protein metabolism. London: Bailliére Tindall. pp 551-570.
106. Vega RB, Huss JM, Kelly DP. 2000. The coactivator PGC-1 cooperates with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha in transcriptional control of nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation enzymes. Mol Cell Biol 20:1868-1876.
107. Vidal-Puig A, Rosenbaum M, Considine RC, Leibel RL, Dohm GL, Lowell BB. 1999. Effects of obesity and stable weight reduction on UCP2 and UCP3 gene expression in humans. Obes Res 7:133-140.
108. Vidal-Puig AJ, Grujic D, Zhang CY, Hagen T, Boss O, Ido Y, Szczepanik A, Wade J, Mootha V, Cortright R, Muoio DM, Lowell BB. 2000. Energy metabolism in uncoupling protein 3 gene knockout mice. J Biol Chem 275:16258-16266.
109. Virbasius JV, Scarpulla RC. 1994. Activation of the human mitochondrial trancription factor A gene by nuclear respiratory factors: A potential regulatory link between nuclear and mitochondrial gene expression in organelle biogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:1309-1313.
110. Vu-Dac N, Schoonjans K, Laine B, Fruchart JC, Auwerx J, Staels B. 1994. Negative regulation of the human apolipoprotein A-I promoter by fibrates can be attenuated by the interaction of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor with its response element. J Biol Chem 269:31012-31018.
111. Watchorn TM, Waddell ID, Dowidar N, Ross JA. 1995. Proteolysis-inducing factor regulates hepatic gene expression via the transcription factors NF-κB and STAT3. FASEB J 15:562-564.
112. Wu Z, Puigserver P, Anderson U, Zhang C, Adelmant G, Mootha V, Troy A, Cinti S, Lowell B, Scarpulla RC, Spegelman BM. 1999. Mechanisms controlling mitochondrial biogenesis and respiration through the thermogenic coactivator PGC-1. Cell 98:115-124.