Sensorimotor integration in movement disorders

Movement Disorders

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 231-240

  Abbruzzese, Giovanni ^a   Berardelli, Alfredo ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

^b SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

Author keywords

Dystonia; Huntington's disease; Parkinson's disease; Peripheral feedback; Review; Sensorimotor integration; Tics

Indexed keywords

BRADYKINESIA; BRAIN CORTEX; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSMETRIA; DYSTONIA; EVENT RELATED POTENTIAL; EVOKED SOMATOSENSORY RESPONSE; GILLES DE LA TOURETTE SYNDROME; HAND DISEASE; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; KINESTHESIA; LATENT PERIOD; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MYOTATIC REFLEX; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; PREPULSE INHIBITION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPRIOCEPTION; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SENSATION; SENSORIMOTOR FUNCTION; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SENSORY NERVE; SENSORY STIMULATION; SPATIAL DISCRIMINATION; TASK PERFORMANCE; TIC; TIME PERCEPTION; VISUAL INFORMATION;

ANIMALS; DYSTONIA; EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR; EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY; FEEDBACK; HUMANS; HUNTINGTON DISEASE; MOTOR CORTEX; MOVEMENT DISORDERS; NEURAL PATHWAYS; PARKINSON DISEASE; SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX; TICS;

EID: 0037356246     PISSN: 08853185     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mds.10327     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. DeLong MR. Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin [review]. Trends Neurosci 1990;13:281-285.
2. Marsden CD, Obeso JA. The functions of the basal ganglia and the paradox of stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson's disease [review]. Brain 1994;117:877-897.
3. Wichmann T, DeLong MR. Functional and pathophysiological models of the basal ganglia [review]. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1996;6:751-758.
4. Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Hallett M. Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease [review]. Brain 200;124:2131-2146.
5. Bergman H, Feingold A, Nini A, Raz A, Slovin H, Abeles M, Vaadia E. Physiological aspects of information processing in the basal ganglia of normal and parkinsonian primates [review]. Trends Neurosci 1998;21:32-38.
6. Hutchinson WD, Levy R, Dostrovsky JO, Lozano AM, Lang AE. Effects of apomorphine on globus pallidus neurons in parkinsonian patients. Ann Neurol 1997;42:767-775.
7. Vitek JL, Chockkan V, Zhang JY, et al. Neuronal activity in the basal ganglia in patients with generalized dystonia and hemiballismus. Ann Neurol 1999;46:22-35.
8. Hallett M. Is dystonia a sensory disorder? [editorial]. Ann Neurol 1995;38:139-140.
9. Kaji R, Murase N. Sensory function of basal ganglia [editorial]. Mov Disord 2001;16:593-594.
10. Snider SR, Fahn S, Isgreen WP, Cote LJ. Primary sensory symptoms in parkinsonism. Neurology 1976;34:957-959.
11. Schneider JS, Diamond SG, Markham CH. Parkinson's disease: sensory and motor problems in arms and hands. Neurology 1987;37:951-956.
12. Jobst EE, Melnick ME, Byl NN, Dowling GA, Aminoff MJ. Sensory perception in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 1997;54:450-454.
13. Zia S, Cody F, O'Boyle D. Joint position sense is impaired by Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2000;47:218-228.
14. Georgiou N, Jansek R, Bradshaw JL, Phillips JG, Mattingley JB, Bradshaw JA. An evaluation of the role in the pathogenesis of parkinsonian hypokinesia. Brain 1993;116:1757-1787.
15. Morris ME, Jansek R, Matyas TA, Summers JJ. Stride length regulation in Parkinson's disease: normalization strategies and underlying mechanisms. Brain 1996;119:551-568.
16. Oliveira RM, Gurd JM, Nixon P, Marshall JC, Passingham RE. Micrographia in Parkinson's disease: the effect of providing external cues. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;63:429-433.
17. McIntosh GC, Brown SH, Rice RR, Thaut MH. Rhythmic auditory-motor facilitation of gait patterns in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:22-26.
18. Marchese R, Diverio M, Zucchi F, Lentino C, Abbruzzese G. The role of sensory cues in the rehabilitation of parkinsonian patients: a comparison of two physical therapy protocols. Mov Disord 2000;15:879-883.
19. Flowers KA. Visual "closed-loop" and "open-loop" characteristics of voluntary movement in patients with Parkinsonism and intention tremor. Brain 1976;99:269-310.
20. Baroni A, Benvenuti F, Fantini L, Pantaleo T, Urbani F. Human ballistic arm abduction movements: effects of L-dopa treatment in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1984;34:868-876.
21. Klockgether T, Dichgans J. Visual control of arm movement in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1994;9:48-56.
22. Klockgether T, Borutta M, Rapp H, Spieker S, Dichgans J. A defect of kinesthesia in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1995;10:460-465.
23. Burke D. Critical examination of the case for or against fusimotor involvement in disorders of muscle tone. In: Desmedt JE, editor. Advances in neurology. Motor control mechanisms in health and disease. New York: Raven Press; 1983. p 133-150.
24. Rothwell JC, Obeso JA, Traub MM, Marsden CD. The behaviour of the long-latency stretch reflex in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983;46:35-44.
25. Berardelli A, Sabra AF, Hallett M. Physiological mechanisms of rigidity in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983;46:45-53.
26. Moore AP. Impaired sensorimotor integration in parkinsonism and dyskinesias: a role of corollary discharges? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987;50:544-552.
27. Rickards C, Cody FW. Proprioceptive control of wrist movements in Parkinson's disease. Reduced muscle vibration-induced errors. Brain 1997;120:977-990.
28. Khulados E, Cody FW, O'Boyle DJ. Proprioceptive regulation of voluntary ankle movements, demonstrated using muscle vibration, is impaired by Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:504-510.
29. Demirci M, Grill S, McShane L, Hallett M. A mismatch between kinesthetic and visual perception in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 1997;41:781-788.
30. Fellows SJ, Noth J, Schwarz M. Precision grip and Parkinson's disease. Brain 1998;121:1771-1784.
31. Rossini PM, Babiloni F, Bernardi G, et al. Abnormalities of short-latency somatosensory evoked potential in parkinsonian patients. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1989;74:277-289.
32. Mauguière F, Broussolle E, Isnard J. Apomorphine-induced relief of the akinetic-rigid syndrome and early median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) in Parkinson's disease. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1993;88:243-254.
33. Garcia PA, Aminoff MJ, Goodin DS. The frontal N30 component of the median-derived SEP in patients with predominantly unilateral Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1995;45:989-992.
34. Abbruzzese G, Marchese R, Trompetto C. Sensory and motor evoked potentials in multiple system atrophy: a comparative study with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1997;12:315-321.
35. Onofrj M, Fulgente T, Malatesta G, et al. The abnormality of N30 somatosensory evoked potential in idiopathic Parkinson's disease is unrelated to disease stage and or clinical scores and insensitive to dopamine manipulations. Mov Disord 1995;10:71-80.
36. Abbruzzese G, Tabaton M, Morena M, Dall'Agata D, Favale E. Motor and sensory evoked potentials in progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord 1991;6:49-54.
37. Onofrj M, Ghilardi MF, Basciani M, Martinez-Tica J, Glover A. Attenuation of the early anterior negativity of median nerve somatosensory evoked potential in MPTP-treated monkey. Neurophysiol Clin 1990;20:283-293.
38. Cheron G, Piette T, Thiriaux A, Jacquy J, Godaux E. Somatosensory evoked potentials at rest and during movement in Parkinson's disease: evidence for a specific apomorphine effect on the frontal N30 wave. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1994;92:491-501.
39. Valeriani M, Insola A, Restuccia D, Le Pera D, Mazzone P, Alibrandi MG, Tonali P. Source generators of the early somatosensory evoked potentials to tibial nerve stimulation: an intracerebral and scalp recording study. Clin Neurophysiol 2001;112:1999-2006.
40. Rossini PM, Filippi MM, Vernieri F. Neurophysiology of sensorimotor integration in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurosci 1998;5:121-130.
41. Nakashima K, Shimoyama R, Yokoyama Y, Takahashi K. Auditory effects on the electrically elicited blink reflex in patients with Parkinson's disease. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1993;89:108-112.
42. Valls-Solé J. Neurophysiological characterization of parkinsonian syndrome [review]. Neurophysiol Clin 2000;30:352-367.
43. Amabile G, Fattaposta F, Pozzessere G, Albani G, Santarelli L, Rizzo PA, Morocutti C. Parkinson's disease: electrophysiological (CNV) analysis related to pharmacological treatment. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1986;64:521-524.
44. Gerschlager W, Alesch F, Cunnington R, et al. Bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation improves frontal cortex function in Parkinson's disease. An electrophysiological study of the contingent negative variation. Brain 1999;122:2365-2373.
45. Ikeda A, Shibasaki H, Kaji R, Terada K, Nagamine T, Honda M, Kimura J. Dissociation between contingent negative variation (CNV) and Bereitschaftpotential (BP) in patients with parkinsonism. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:142-151.
46. Noth J, Engel L, Friedmann HH, Lange HW. Evoked potentials in patients with Huntington's disease and their offspring. I. Somatosensory evoked potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1984;32:134-141.
47. Ehle AL, Stewart RM, Lellelid NA, Leventhal NA. Evoked potentials in Huntington's disease. A comparative and longitudinal study. Arch Neurol 1984;41:379-382.
48. Abbruzzese G, Dall'Agata D, Morena M, Reni L, Favale E. Abnormalities of parietal and prerolandic somatosensory evoked potentials in Huntington's disease. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1990;77:340-346.
49. Topper R, Schwarz M, Podoll K, Domages F, Noth J. Absence of frontal somatosensory evoked potentials in Huntington's disease. Brain 1993;116:87-101.
50. Schwarz M, Block F, Topper R, Sontag KH, Noth J. Abnormalities of somatosensory evoked potentials in the quinolic acid model of Huntington's disease: evidence that basal ganglia modulate sensory cortical input. Ann Neurol 1992;32:358-364.
51. Block F, Schwarz M, Sontag KH. Non-NMDA mediated transmission of somatosensory evoked potentials in the rat thalamus. Brain Res Bull 1993;31:449-454.
52. Kuwert T, Noth J, Scholz D, et al. Comparison of somatosensory evoked potentials with striatal glucose consumption measured by positron emission tomography in the early diagnosis of Huntington's disease. Mov Disord 1993;8:98-106.
53. Noth J, Podoll K, Friedmann HH. Long-loop reflexes in small hand muscles studied in normal subjects and in patients with Huntington's disease. Brain 1985;108:65-80.
54. Thompson PD, Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Dick JP, Benecke R, Marsden CD. The coexistence of bradykinesia and chorea in Huntington's disease and its implications for theories of basal ganglia control of movement. Brain 1988;111:223-244.
55. Abbruzzese G, Dall'Agata D, Morena M, Spadavecchia L, Favale E. Impaired habituation of long latency stretch reflexes of the wrist muscles in Huntington's disease. Mov Disord 1990;5:32-35.
56. Deuschl G, Lucking CH, Schenck E. Hand muscles reflexes following electrical stimulation in choreatic movement disorders. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52;755-762.
57. Priori A, Polidori L, Rona S, Manfredi M, Berardelli A. Spinal and cortical inhibition in Huntington's chorea. Mov Disord 2000;15:938-946.
58. Swerdlow NR, Paulsen J, Braff DL, Butters N, Geyer MA, Swenson MR. Impaired prepulse inhibition of acoustic and tactile startle response in patients with Huntington's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:192-200.
59. Berardelli A, Noth J, Thompson PD, et al. Pathophysiology of chorea and bradykinesia in Huntington's disease [review]. Mov Disord 1999;14:398-403.
60. Quinn L, Reilman R, Mareder K, Gordon AM. Altered movement trajectories and force control during object transport in Huntington's disease. Mov Disord 2001;16:469-480.
61. Schwarz M, Fellows SJ, Schaffrath C, Noth J. Deficits in sensorimotor control during precise hand movements in Huntington's disease. Clin Neurophysiol 2001;112:95-106.
62. Sharp FR, Rando TA, Greenberg SA, Brown L, Sagar SM. Pseudochoreoathetosis. Movements associated with loss of proprioception. Arch Neurol 1994;51:1103-1109.
63. Timmermann L, Gross J, Schmitz F, Freund HJ, Schnitzer A. Involvement of the motor cortex in pseudochorecathetosis. Mov Disord 2001;16:876-881.
64. Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Hallett M, Thompson PD, Manfredi M, Marsden CD. The pathophysiology of primary dystonia [review]. Brain 1998;121:1195-1212.
65. Ghika J, Regli F, Growdon JH. Sensory symptoms in cranial dystonia: a potential role in the etiology? J Neurol Sci 1993;116:142-147.
66. Defazio G, Berardelli A, Abbruzzese, G et al. Possible risk factors for primary adult onset dystonia: a case control investigation by the Italian Movement Disorders Study Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:25-32.
67. Jankovic J. Post-traumatic movement disorders: central and peripheral mechanisms. Neurology 1994;44:2006-2014.
68. Leis AA, Dimitrijevic MR, Delapasse JS, Sharkey PC. Modification of cervical dystonia by selective sensory stimulation. J Neurol Sci 1992;110:79-89.
69. Kaji R, Rothwell JC, Katayama M, et al. Tonic vibration reflex and muscle afferent block in writer's cramp. Ann Neurol 1995;38:155-162.
70. Yoshida K, Kaji R, Kubori T, Kohara N, Iizuka T, Kimura J. Muscle afferent block for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Mov Disord 1998;13:699-705.
71. Deuschl G, Heinen F, Kleedorfer B, Warner M, Lucking CH, Poewe W. Clinical and polymyographic investigation of spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol 1992;239:9-15.
72. Wissel J, Muller J, Ebersbach G, Poewe W. Trick maneuvers in cervical dystonia: investigation of movement- and touch-related changes in polymyographic activity. Mov Disord 1999;14:994-999.
73. Muller J, Wissel J, Masuhr F, Ebersbach G, Wenning GK, Poewe W. Clinical characteristics of the geste antagoniste in cervical dystonia. J Neurol 2001;248:478-482.
74. Masuhr F, Wissel J, Muller J, Scholz U, Poewe W. Quantification of sensory trick impact on tremor amplitude and frequency in 60 patients with head tremor. Mov Disord 2000;15:960-964.
75. Naumann M, Magyar-Lehmann S, Reiners K, Erbguth F, Leenders KL. Sensory tricks in cervical dystonia: perceptual dysbalance of parietal cortex modulates frontal motor programming. Ann Neurol 2000;47:322-328.
76. Byl N, Wilson F, Merzenich M, Melnick M, Scott P, Oakes A, McKenzie A. Sensory dysfunction associated with repetitive strain injuries of tendinitis and focal hand dystonia: a comparative study. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1996;23:234-244.
77. Grünewald RA, Yoneda Y, Shipman JM, Sagar HJJ. Idiopathic focal dystonia: a disorder of muscle spindle afferent processing. Brain 1997;120:2179-2185.
78. Rome S, Grünewald RA. Abnormal perception of vibration-induced illusion of movement in dystonia. Neurology 1999;53:1794-1800.
79. Yoneda Y, Rome S, Sagar HJ, Grunewald RA. Abnormal perception of the tonic vibration reflex in idiopathic focal dystonia. Eur J Neurol 2000;7:529-533.
80. Tempel LWE, Perlmutter JS. Abnormal cortical responses in patients with writer's cramp. Neurology 1993;43:2252-2257.
81. Feiwell RJ, Black KJ, McGee-Minnich LA, Snyder AZ, MacLeod AM, Perlmutter JS. Diminished regional cerebral blood flow response to vibration in patients with blepharospasm. Neurology 1999;52:291-297.
82. Bara-Jimenez W, Shelton P, Hallett M. Spatial discrimination is abnormal in focal hand dystonia. Neurology 2000;55:1869-1873.
83. Bara-Jimenez W, Shelton P, Sanger TD, Hallett M. Sensory discrimination capabilities in patients with focal hand dystonia. Ann Neurol 2000;47:377-380.
84. Sanger TD, Tarsy D, Pascual-Leone A. Abnormalities of spatial and temporal sensory discrimination in writer's cramp. Mov Disord 2001;16:94-99.
85. Sanger TD, Pascual-Leone A, Tarsy D, Schlaug G. Nonlinear sensory cortex response to simultaneous tactile stimuli in writer's cramp. Mov Disord 2002;17:105-111.
86. Odergreen T, Iwasaki N, Borg J, Forssberg H. Impaired sensorimotor integration during grasping in writer's cramp. Brain 1996;119:569-583.
87. Serrien DJ, Burgunder JM, Wiesendanger M. Disturbed sensorimotor processing during control of precision grip in patients with writer's cramp. Mov Disord 2000;15:965-972.
88. Reilly JA, Hallett M, Cohen LG, Tarkka IM, Dang N. The N30 component of somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with dystonia. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1992;84:243-247.
89. Mazzini L, Zaccala M, Balzarini C. Abnormalities of somatosensory evoked potentials in spasmodic torticollis. Mov Disord 1994;9:426-430.
90. Grissom JR, Toro C, Trettau J, Hallett M. The N30 and N140-P190 median somatosensory evoked potential waveforms in dystonia involving the upper extremity [abstract]. Neurology 1995;45:A458.
91. Kañovský P, Streitová H, Dufek J, Znojil V, Daniel P, Rektor I. Change in lateralization of the P22/N30 cortical component of median nerve somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with cervical dystonia after successful treatment with botulinum toxin A. Mov Disord 1998;13:108-117.
92. Tinazzi M, Priori A, Bertolasi L, Frasson E, Mauguière F, Fiaschi A. Abnormal central integration of a dual somatosensory input in dystonia. Evidence for sensory overflow. Brain 2000;123:42-50.
93. Frasson E, Priori A, Bertolasi L, Mauguiere F, Fiaschi A, Tinazzi M. Somatosensory dishinibition in dystonia. Mov Disord 2001;16:667-684.
94. Abbruzzese G, Marchese R, Buccolieri A, Gasparetto B, Trompetto C. Abnormalities of sensorimotor integration in focal dystonia. A transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Brain 2001;124:537-545.
95. Murase N, Kaji R, Shimezu H, et al. Abnormal premovement gating of somatosensory input in writer's cramp. Brain 2000;123:1813-1829.
96. Gomez-Wong E, Marti MJ, Tolosa E, Valls-Solé J. Sensory modulation of the blink reflex in patients with blepharospasm. Arch Neurol 1998;55:1233-1237.
97. Kaji R, Ikeda A, Ikeda T, et al. Physiological study of cervical dystonia. Task-specific abnormality in contingent negative variation. Brain 1995;118:511-522.
98. Ikeda A, Shibasaki H, Kaji R, et al. Abnormal sensorimotor integration in writer's cramp: study of contingent negative variation. Mov Disord 1996;11:683-690.
99. Hamano T, Kaji R, Katayama M, Kubori T, Ikeda A, Shibasaki H, Kimura J. Abnormal contingent negative variation in writer's cramp. Clin Neurophysiol 1999;110:508-515.
100. Nakashima K, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Thompson PD, Shannon K, Marsden CD. Reciprocal inhibition between forearm muscles in patients with writer's cramp and other occupational cramps, symptomatic hemidystonia and hemiparesis due to stroke. Brain 1989;112:681-697.
101. Chen RS, Tsai CH, Lu CS. Reciprocal inhibition in writer's cramp. Mov Disord 1995;10:556-561.
102. Priori A, Berardelli A, Mercuri B, Manfredi M. Physiological effects produced by botulinum toxin treatment of upper limb dystonia. Changes in reciprocal inhibition between forearm muscles. Brain 1995;118:801-897.
103. Ridding MC, Sheean G, Rothwell JC, Inzelberg R, Kujirai T. Changes in the balance between motor cortical excitation and inhibition in focal, task specific dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;59:493-498.
104. Filipovic SR, Ljiubisavljevic M, Stevel M, Milanovic S, Kacar A, Kostic VS. Impairment of cortical inhibition in writer's cramp as revealed by changes in electromyographic silent period after transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurosci Lett 1997;222:167-170.
105. Rona S, Berardelli A, Inghilleri M, Manfredi M. Alterations of motor cortical inhibition in patients with dystonia. Mov Disord 1998;13:118-124.
106. Ikoma K, Samii A, Mercuri B, Wassermann EM, Hallett M. Abnormal cortical motor excitability in dystonia. Neurology 1996;46:1371-1376.
107. Byrnes ML, Thickbroom GW, Wilson SA, Sacco P, Shipman JM, Stell R, Mastaglia FL. The corticomotor representation of upper limb muscles in writer's cramp and changes following botulinum toxin injection. Brain 1998;121:977-988.
108. Gilio F, Curra A, Lorenzano C, Modugno N, Manfredi M, Berardelli A. Effects of botulinum toxin type A on intracortical inhibition in patients with dystonia. Ann Neurol 2000;48:20-26.
109. Chen R, Corwell B, Hallett M. Modulation of motor cortex excitability by median nerve and digit stimulation. Exp Brain Res 1999;129:77-86.
110. Trompetto C, Buccolieri A, Abbruzzese G. Intracortical inhibitory circuits and sensory input: a study with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurosci Lett 2001;297:17-20.
111. Bara-Jimenez W, Catalan MJ, Hallett M, Gerloff C. Abnormal somatosensory homunculus in dystonia of the hand. Ann Neurol 1998;44:828-831.
112. Elbert T, Candia V, Altenmuller E, et al. Alteration of digit representations in somatosensory cortex in focal hand dystonia. Neuroreport 1998;9:3571-3575.
113. Byl NN, McKenzie A, Nagarajan SS. Differences in somatosensory hand organization in a healthy flautist and a flautist with local hand dystonia: a case report. J Hand Ther 2000;13:302-309.
114. Byl NN, Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM. A primate genesis model of focal dystonia and repetitive strain injury. I. Learning induced dedifferentiation of the representation of the hand in the primary somatosensory cortex of adult monkeys. Neurology 1996;47:508-520.
115. Godde B, Stauffenberg B, Spengler F, Dinse HR. Tactile coactivation-induced changes in spatial discrimination performance. J Neurosci 2000;20:1597-1604.
116. Priori A, Pesenti A, Cappellari A, Scarlato G, Barbieri S. Post-contraction depression of reciprocal inhibition in human forearm muscles. Muscle Nerve 2000;23:1335-1343.
117. Kaji R, Shibasaki H, Kimura J. Writer's cramp: a disorder of motor subroutine. Ann Neurol 1995;38:837-838.
118. Krumholz A, Singer HS, Niedermeyer E, Burnite R, Harris K. Electrophysiological studies in Tourette's syndrome. Ann Neurol 1983;14:638-641.
119. Syrigou-Papavisiliou A, Verma NP, LeWitt PA. Sensory evoked responses in Tourette's syndrome. Clin Electroencephalogr 1988;19:108-110.
120. Kurlan R, Lichter D, Hewitt D. Sensory tics in Tourette's syndrome. Neurology 1989;39:731-734.
121. Leckman JF, Walker DE. Cohen DJ. Premonitory urges in Tourette's syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:98-102.
122. Karp BI, Hallett M. Extracorporeal "phantom tics" in Tourette's syndrome. Neurology 1996;46:38-40.
123. Miguel EC, do Rosario-Campos MC, Prado HS, et al. Sensory phenomena in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:150-156.
124. Georgiou N, Bradshaw JL, Phillips JG, Bradshaw JA, Chiu E. Advance information and movement sequencing in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995;58:184-191.
125. Peterson B, Riddle MA, Cohen DJ, Katz LD, Smith JC, Hardin MT, Leckman JF. Reduced basal ganglia volumes in Tourette's syndrome using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques from magnetic resonance images. Neurology 1993;43:941-949.
126. Singer HS, Reiss AL, Brown JE, et al. Volumetric MRI changes in basal ganglia of children with Tourette's syndrome. Neurology 1993;43:950-956.
127. Hyde TM, Stacey ME, Coppola R, Handel SF, Rickler KC, Weinberg DR. Cerebral morphometric abnormalities in Tourette's syndrome: a quantitative MRI study of monozygotic twins. Neurology 1995;45:1176-1182.
128. Stoetter B, Braun AR, Randolph C, Gernert J, Carson RE, Herscovitch P, Chase TN. Functional neuroanatomy of Tourette syndrome. Limbic-motor interactions studied with FDG PET. Adv Neurol 1992;58:213-226.
129. Braun AR, Stoetter B, Randolph C, et al. The functional neuroanatomy of Tourette's syndrome: an FDG-PET study. I. Regional changes in cerebral glucose metabolism differentiating patients and controls. Neuropsychopharmacology 1993;9:277-291.
130. Stell R, Thickbroom GW, Mastaglia FL. The audiogenic startle response in Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord 1995;10:723-730.
131. Gironell A, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Kulisevsky J, Pascual B, Riba J, Barbanoj M, Berthier M. Abnormalities of the acoustic startle reflex and reaction time in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Clin Neurophysiol 2000;111:1366-1371.
132. Ziemann U, Paulus W, Rothenberger A. Decreased motor inhibition in Tourette's disorder: evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1277-1284.
133. Greenberg BD, Ziemann U, Corà-Locatelli G, Harmon A, Murphy DL, Keel JC, Wassermann EM. Altered cortical excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurology 2000;54:142-147.
134. Smith SJ, Lees AJ. Abnormalities of the blink reflex in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52:895-898.
135. Castellanos FX, Fine EJ, Kaysen D, Marsh WL, Rapoport JL, Hallett M. Sensorimotor gating in boys with Tourette's syndrome and ADHD: preliminary results. Biol Psychiatry 1996;39:33-41.
136. Flaherty AW, Graybiel AM. Corticostriatal transformations in the primate somatosensory system. Projections from physiologically mapped body-part representations. J Neurophysiol 1991;66:1249-1263.
137. Brown LL. Somatotopic organization in rat striatum: evidence for a combinational map. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992;89:7403-7407.
138. Brown LL, Hand PJ, Divac I. Representation of a single vibrissa in the rat neostriatum: peaks of energy metabolism reveal a distributed functional module. Neuroscience 1996;75:717-728.
139. Brown LL, Schneider JS, Lidsky T. Sensory and cognitive functions of the basal ganglia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1997:7:157-163.
140. Brown LL, Sharp FR. Metabolic mapping of rat striatum: somatotopic organization of sensorimotor activity. Brain Res 1995;686:207-222.
141. Lidsky TI, Manetto C, Schnider JS. A consideration of sensory factors involved in motor functions of the basal ganglia. Brain Res 1985;356:133-146.