Leadership and gender advantage

Leadership Quarterly

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 643-671

  Vecchio, Robert P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036889280     PISSN: 10489843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00156-X     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. Adler, N. J. (1996). Global women political leaders: an invisible history, an increasingly important future. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 133-161.
2. Allen, C. (2002). Return of the guy. The Women's Quarterly (Winter), http://www.iwf.org/pubs/twq/Winter2002d.shtml.
3. Anderson, C., John, O. P., Keltner, D., & Kring, A. M. (2001). Who attains social status? Effects of personality and physical attractiveness in social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 116-132.
4. Archer, J. (1996). Sex differences in social behavior: are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible? American Psychologist, 51, 909-917.
5. Averill, J. R. (1983). Studies on anger and aggression: implications for theories of emotion. American Psychologist, 38, 1145-1160.
6. Baron, R. A. (2000a). Beyond social capital: how social skills can enhance entrepreneurs' success. Academy of Management Executive, 14, 106-115.
7. Baron, R. A. (2000b). Psychological perspectives on entrepreneurship: cognitive and social factors in entrepreneurs' success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 15-18.
8. Bartol, K. M. (1999). Gender influences on performance evaluations. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 168-178). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.
9. Bartol, K. M., & Butterfield, D. A. (1976). Sex effects in evaluating leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 446-454.
10. Basow, S. A. (1995). Student evaluations of college professors: when gender matters. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 656-665.
11. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdill's handbook of leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
12. Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: industrial, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
13. Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J., & Atwater, L. (1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45, 5-34.
14. Baumeister, R. F. (1988). Should we stop studying sex differences altogether? American Psychologist, 43, 1092-1095.
15. Bem, S. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
16. Bernstein, B., & Burke, L. (1995). Report on student evaluations of female and male faculty at Arizona State University. Tempe: Arizona State University Graduate College.
17. Birnbaum, D. W., Nosanchuk, J. A., & Croll, W. L. (1980). Children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality. Sex Roles, 6, 435-443.
18. Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1978). The new managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf.
19. Blass, T. (1999). The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: some things we now know about obedience to authority. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 955-978.
20. Bloom, H. (2002, March/April). Can the United States export diversity? Across the Board, 47-51.
21. Buss, D. M. (1996). The evolutionary psychology of human social strategies. In E. T. Higgins, & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: handbook of basic principles (pp. 3-38). New York: Guilford Press.
22. Butterfield, D. A., & Powell, G. N. (1981). Effect of group performance, leader sex, and rater sex on ratings of leader behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28, 129-141.
23. Carless, S. A. (1998). Gender differences in transformational leadership: an examination of superior, leader, and subordinate perspectives. Sex Roles, 39, 887-902.
24. Carli, L. L. (1990). Gender, language, and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 941-951.
25. Carr-Rufino, N. (1993). The promotable woman: advancing through leadership skills. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
26. Case, S. S. (1985). A sociolinguistic analysis of the language of gender relations, deviance, and influence in managerial groups (intergroup language differences). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(7A), 2006.
27. Cashdan, E. (1998). Smiles, speech, and body posture: how women and men display sociometric status and power. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22, 209-228.
28. Casimer, G. (2001). Combinative aspects of leadership style: the ordering and temporal spacing of leadership behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 245-278.
29. Chesler, P. (2001). Woman's inhumanity to woman. New York, NY: Nation Books.
30. Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. (1998). Charismatic leadership in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.
31. Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity-femininity. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 389-407.
32. Danserau, F., Graen, G., & Haga, W. J. (1975). A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: a longitudinal investigation of the role-making process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 46-78.
33. Deaux, K., & La France, M. (1998). Gender. In D. J. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, 4th ed., vol. 1 (pp. 788-827). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
34. Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader-member exchange model of leadership: a critique and further developments. Academy of Management Review, 11, 118-134.
35. Dobbins, G. H., & Platz, S. J. (1986). Sex-differences in leadership-how real are they. Academy of Management Review, 11, 118-127.
36. Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145-158.
37. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: a meta-analyses of social influence studies. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20.
38. Eagly, A. H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2001). The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 781-797.
39. Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership-style: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233-256.
40. Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 125-145.
41. Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3-22.
42. Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1989). Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 543-558.
43. Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1994). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitude, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. In W. Strobe, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology, vol. 5 ( pp. 1-35). New York, NY: Wiley.
44. Eagly, A. H., Mladinic, A., & Otto, S. (1991). Are women evaluated more favorably than men? An analysis of attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 203-216.
45. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408-423.
46. Ellison, C. G., & Powers, D. A. (1994). The contact hypothesis and racial attitudes among Black Americans. Social Science Quarterly, 75, 385-400.
47. Evans, J. (1997). Men in nursing: issues of gender segregation and hidden advantage. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, 226-231.
48. Fabes, R. A., & Martin, C. L. (1991). Gender and age stereotypes of emotionality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 532-540.
49. Farmer, S. M., & Maslyn, J. M. (1999). Why are styles of upward influence neglected? Making the case for a configurational approach to influences. Journal of Management, 25, 653-682.
50. Feingold, A. (1988). Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist, 43, 95-103.
51. Feldman, K. (1993). College students' views of male and female college teachers: Part II. Evidence from student evaluations of their classroom teachers. Research in Higher Education, 34, 151-211.
52. Fiedler, F. E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hall.
53. Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1982). Improving leader effectiveness. The leader match concept (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
54. Fischer, A. (1993). Sex differences in emotionality: fact or stereotype? Feminism and Psychology, 3, 303-318.
55. Fleishman, E. A. (1957). The leadership opinion questionnaire. In R. M. Stogdill, & A. E. Coons (Eds.), Leader behavior: its description and measurement (pp. 120-133). Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business Research, Ohio State University.
56. Fox, K. (2002). Evolution, alienation, and gossip. Social Issues Research Group, www.sirc.org/publik/gossip.shtml.
57. Gallup Special Reports (1999). The Gallup poll: 65 years of polling history, www.gallup.com/poll/specialReports/pollSummaries/pollsis ņtury izQ.asp.
58. Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 827-844.
59. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
60. Graeff, C. L. (1983). The situational leadership theory: a critical view. Academy of Management Review, 8, 285-291.
61. Graeff, C. L. (1997). Evolution of situational leadership theory: a critical review. Leadership Quarterly, 8, 153-170.
62. Graen, G., & Scandura, T. A. (1986). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 175-208.
63. Graen, G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership-development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
64. Grant, J. (1988). Women as managers: what they can offer to organizations. Organizational Dynamics, 56-63.
65. Grobman, H., & Hines, V. A. (1956). What makes a good principal? Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, 40, 5-16.
66. Haccoun, D. M., Haccoun, R. R., & Sallay, G. (1978). Sex differences in the appropriateness of supervisory styles: a non-management view. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 124-127.
67. Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: time and the effects of surface-level and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96-107.
68. Hathaway, S. R., & McKinley, J. C. (1951). The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (revised). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
69. Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, R. F., & Simon, M. C. (1989). Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 935-942.
70. Helgeson, S. (1990). The female advantage: women's ways of leadership. New York: Doubleday/Currency.
71. Heller, T., & VanTil, J. V. (1982). Leadership and followership: some summary propositions. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18, 405-414.
72. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1977). Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resources (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
73. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organizational behavior: utilizing human resources (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
74. Hilton, L. (2001). A few good men: male nurses defy stereotypes and discrimination to find satisfaction in female-dominated profession. Nurse Week, www.nurseweek.com/news/features/01-05/men.html.
75. Hoffman, R. M. (2001). The measurement of masculinity and femininity: historical perspective and implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 472-485.
76. Hollander, E. P., & Kelly, D. R. (1992). Appraising relational qualities of leadership and followership. International Journal of Psychology, 27, 289-290.
77. Hooijberg, R., & DiTomaso, N. (1996). Leadership in and of demographically diverse organizations. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 1-19.
78. Hooijberg, R., Hunt, J. G., & Dodge, G. E. (1997). Leadership complexity and development of the Leaderplex Model. Journal of Management, 23, 375-408.
79. International Labour Office (1996). Yearbook of labour statistics (55th ed.) (pp. 73-84). Geneva: ILO.
80. Jacobsen, M. B., & Effertz, J. (1974). Sex roles and leadership: perceptions of the leaders and the led. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 12, 383-396.
81. Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 703-726.
82. Johnson, I. T., & Shulman, G. A. (1988). More alike than meets the eye: perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its display. Sex Roles, 19, 67-79.
83. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965-990.
84. Keller, R. T. (2001). Cross-functional project groups in research and new product development: diversity, communications, job stress, and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 547-555.
85. Kelley, R. E. (1988). In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review, 66, 142-148.
86. Kerr, S., & Jermier, J. M. (1978). Substitutes for leadership: their meaning and measurement. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 22, 375-403.
87. Kidder, D. L., & Parks, J. M. (2001). The good soldier: who is s(he)? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 939-959.
88. Kipnis, D., Schmidt, S. M., Swaffin-Smith, C., & Wilkinson, I. (1984). Patterns of managerial influence: shotgun managers, tacticians, and bystanders. Organizational Dynamics, 12, 58-67.
89. Kipnis, D., Schmidt, S. M., & Wilkinson, I. (1980). Intraorganizational influence tactics: explorations in getting one's way. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 440-452.
90. Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: the cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347-400). Chicago, IL: Rand-McNally.
91. Komives, S. R. (1991). The relationship of same- and cross-gender work pairs to staff performance and supervisory leadership in residence hall units. Sex Roles, 29, 405-420.
92. LaFrance, M., & Banaji, M. (1992). Toward a reconsideration of the gender-emotion relationship. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and social behavior. Review of personality and social psychology, vol. 14 (pp. 178-201). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
93. Larson, L. L., Hunt, J. G., & Osburn, R. (1976). The great Hi-Hi leader behavior myth: a lesson from Occam's razor. Academy of Management Journal, 19, 628-641.
94. Lawrence, B. S. (1984). Age grading: the implicit organizational timetable. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 5, 25-35.
95. Lawrence, B. S. (1996). Organizational age norms: why is it so hard to know one when you see one? Gerontologist, 36, 209-220.
96. Lawrence, B. S. (1997). The black box of organizational demography. Organizational Sciences, 8, 1-22.
97. Lenney, E. (1991). Sex roles: masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes, vol. 1 (pp. 573-660). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
98. LePine, J. A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D. E. (2002). The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: a critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 52-65.
99. Likert, R. (1967). The human organization. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
100. Litzinger, W., & Schaeffer, T. (1982). Leadership through followership. Business Horizons, 25, 78-81.
101. Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership: or how to succeed in business without being one of the boys. New York, NY: Times Books.
102. Lundin, S. C., & Lancaster, L. C. (1990). Beyond leadership: the importance of followership. Futurist, 24, 18-22.
103. Lyness, K. S., & Thompson, D. E. (1997). Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of matched samples of female and male executives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 359-375.
104. Maher, K. J. (1997). Gender-related stereotypes of transformational and transactional leadership. Sex Roles, 37, 209-225.
105. Maier, M. (1992). Evolving paradigms of management in organizations: a gendered analysis. Journal of Management Studies, 4, 29-45.
106. Maier, M. (1999). On the gendered substructure of organizations: dimensions and dilemmas of corporate masculinity. In G. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work ( pp. 69-93). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.
107. Marsh, H. W., & Myers, M. (1986). Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. A methodological and theoretical critique. Sex Roles, 14, 397-431.
108. Marsh, H. W., & Ware, J. E. (1982). Effects of expressiveness, content coverage, and incentive on multidimensional student rating scales: new interpretations of the Dr. Fox effect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 126-134.
109. Martinko, M. J., & Gardner, W. L. (1985). Beyond structural observation: methodological issues and new directions. Academy of Management Review, 10, 676-695.
110. McGrath, J. E. (1991). Time, interaction, and performance (TIP): a theory of groups. Small Group Research, 22, 147-174.
111. McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.
112. McLean, S. R., & Hinrich, R. N. (2000). Buoyancy, gender, and swimming performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 16, 248-263.
113. Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J., & Smith, C. A. (1993). Commitment to organizations and occupations: extension and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-551.
114. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378.
115. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper and Row.
116. Moore, D. P. (1999). Women entrepreneurs. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 371-390). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.
117. Morawski, J. G. (1985). The measurement of masculinity and femininity: engendering categorical realities. Journal of Personality, 53, 196-233.
118. Morawski, J. G. (1987). The troubled quest for masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. In P. Shaver, & C. Hendrick (Eds.), Sex and gender (pp. 44-69). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
119. Noonan, P. (2001a, Oct. 5). Courage under fire. Wall Street Journal, http://www.opinionjournal.com/columnists/pnoonan/?id=95001272.
120. Noonan, P. (2001b, Oct. 12). Welcome back, Duke. Wall Street Journal, http://www.opinionjournal.com/ columnists/ pnoonan/ ?id=95001309.
121. Nystrom, P. C. (1978). Managers and the hi-hi myth. Academy of Management Journal, 21, 325-331.
122. Organ, D. W. (1977). Organizational citizenship behavior: it's construct clean up time. Human Performance, 10, 85-97.
123. Pazy, A., & Oron, I. (2001). Sex proportion and performance evaluation among high-ranking military officers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 689-702.
124. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.
125. Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1979). The "good manager": masculine or androgynous. Academy of Management Journal, 22, 395-403.
126. Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1989). The "good manager": did androgyny fare better in the 1980's? Group and Organization Studies, 14, 216-233.
127. Powell, G. N., Butterfield, D. A., & Parent, J. D. (2002). Gender and managerial stereotypes: have the times changed? Journal of Management, 28, 177-193.
128. Ragins, B. R. (1991). Gender effects in subordinate evaluations of leaders: real or artifact. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12, 259-268.
129. Ritchie, R. J., & Moses, J. L. (1983). Assessment center correlates of women's advancement into middle management: a 7-year longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 227-231.
130. Roberson, L., & Block, C. J. (2001). Racioethnicity and job performance: a review and critique of theoretical perspectives on the causes of group differences. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23, 247-325.
131. Robinson, M. D., Johnson, J. T., & Shields, S. A. (1998). The gender heuristic and the database: factors affecting the perception of gender-related differences in the experience and display of emotions. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 206-219.
132. Rosen, B., & Jerdee, J. H. (1973). The influence of sex-role stereotypes on evaluations of male and female supervisory behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 44-48.
133. Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 68(6), 119-125.
134. Rosener, J. B. (1995). America's competitive secret: utilizing women as a management strategy. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press.
135. Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
136. Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2001). Meta-analysis: recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 59-82.
137. Sargent, J. F., & Miller, G. R. (1971). Some differences in certain communication behaviors of autocratic and democratic group leaders. Journal of Communication, 21, 233-252.
138. Scarborough, J. (1998). The origins of cultural differences and their impact on management. Westport, CN: Quorum Books.
139. Schein, V. E., & Mueller, R. (1992). Sex-role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: a cross-cultural look. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 439-447.
140. Schein, V. E., Mueller, R., Lituchy, T., & Liu, J. (1996). Think manager-think male: a global phenomenon? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17, 33-41.
141. Schmidt, S. M., & Kipnis, D. (1987, Nov.). The perils of persistency. Psychology Today, 32-34.
142. Schneider, B. (1983). Interactional psychology and organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 5, 1-31.
143. Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Psychology, 40, 437-453.
144. Schriesheim, C. A. (1982). The great high consideration-high initiating structure myth: evidence on its generalizability. Journal of Social Psychology, 116, 221-228.
145. Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., & Cogliser, C. C. (1999). Leader-member exchange (LMX) research: a comprehensive review of theory, measurement, and data-analytic practices. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 63-113.
146. Schriesheim, C. A., & Hinkin, T. R. (1990). Influence tactics used by subordinates: a theoretical and empirical analysis and refinement of the Kipnis, Schmidt, and Wilkinson subscales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 246-257.
147. Schriesheim, C. A., & Kerr, S. (1977a). Theories and measures of leadership: a critical appraisal. In J. G. Hunt, & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: the cutting edge (pp. 9-45). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Univ. Press.
148. Schriesheim, C. A., & Kerr, S. (1977b). R.I.P. LPC: a reply to Fiedler. In J. G. Hunt, & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: the cutting edge (pp. 51-56). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Univ. Press.
149. Schriesheim, C. A., & Klich, N. R. (1991). Fiedler's least preferred coworker (LPC) instrument: an investigation of its true bipolarity. Education and Psychological Measurement, 51, 305-315.
150. Schriesheim, C. A., & Stogdill, R. M. (1975). Differences in factor structure across three versions of Ohio State Leadership Scales. Personnel Psychology, 28, 189-206.
151. Shields, S. A. (1991). Gender in the psychology of emotion: a selective research review. In K. T. Strongman (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion, vol. 1 (pp. 227-245). New York, NY: Wiley.
152. Shields, S. A. (1995). The role of emotion, beliefs, and values in gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology, vol. 15 (pp. 212-232). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.
153. Sigelman, L., & Welch, S. (1993). The contact hypothesis revisited: intersocial contact and positive racial attitudes. Social Forces, 71, 781-795.
154. Simmons, R. (2002). Odd girl out: the hidden culture of aggression in girls. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace.
155. Sommers, C. H. (2000a). The war against boys: how misguided feminism is harming our young men. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
156. Sommers, C. H. (2000b). The war against boys. Atlantic Monthly, www. theatlantic.com/issues/2000/05/sommers.htm.
157. Sommers, C. H. (2000c). Letters: Christina Hoff Sommers replies to Carol Gilligan, Atlantic Monthly, www.theatlanticmonthly.com/issues/2000/08/ letters.htm.
158. Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
159. Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The triarchic mind: a new theory of human intelligence. New York, NY: Viking.
160. Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Managerial intelligence: why IQ isn't enough. Journal of Management, 23, 475-493.
161. Sternberg, R. J., & Horvath, J. A. (1999). Tacit knowledge in professional practice: researcher and practitioner perspectives. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
162. Sternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., Williams, W., & Horvath, J. (1995). Testing common sense. American Psychologist, 50, 912-927.
163. Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
164. Tavris, C. (1992). The mismeasure of woman: why women are not the better sex, the inferior sex, or the opposite sex. New York, NY: Touchstone.
165. Tavris, C. (2001). The politics and science of gender research. In C. Tavris (Ed.), Psychobabble and biobunk (pp. 43-60). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
166. Trempe, J., Rigny, A., & Haccoun, R. (1985). Subordinate satisfaction with male and female managers: role of perceived supervisory influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 44-47.
167. Tsui, A. S., Egan, T. D., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1992). Being different: relational demography and organizational commitment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549-579.
168. Tsui, A. S., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: the importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402-423.
169. US Dept. of Labor, Labor Statistics (1998). Employment and Earnings, 45(1), 163; (9), 7.
170. van Engen, M. L., van der Leeden, R., & Willemsen, T. M. (2001). Gender, context and leadership styles: a field study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 581-598.
171. Vecchio, R. P. (1979). A test of the cognitive complexity interpretation of the least preferred coworker scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 39, 523-526.
172. Vecchio, R. P. (1987). Effective followership: leadership turned upside down. Journal of Business Strategies, 4, 39-47.
173. Vecchio, R. P., & Boatwright, K. J. (2002). Preferences for idealized styles of supervision. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 327-342.
174. Vecchio, R. P., & Bullis, R. G. (2001). Moderators of the influence of supervisor-subordinate similarity on subordinate outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 884-896.
175. Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (1978). On the validity of the Vroom-Yetton model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 151-162.
176. Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (1988). The new leadership: managing participation in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
177. Vroom, V. H., & Yetton, P. C. (1973). Leadership and decision making. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
178. Wallston, B. S. (1987). Social psychology of women and gender. Journal of Applied Psychology, 17, 1025-1050.
179. Williams, K. Y., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1998). Demographic diversity in organizations: a review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 20, 77-140.
180. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
181. Yukl, G., & Falbe, C. M. (1990). Influence tactics and objectives in upward, downward, and lateral influence attempts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 132-140.
182. Zaccaro, S. J., Foti, R. J., & Kenny, D. A. (1991). Self-monitoring and trait-based variance in leadership: an investigation of leader flexibility across multiple group situations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 308-315.