The UVic earth system climate model: Model description, climatology, and applications to past, present and future climates

Atmosphere - Ocean

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 361-428

  Weaver, Andrew J ^a   Eby, Michael ^a   Wiebe, Edward C ^a   Ewen, Tracy L ^a   Fanning, Augustus F ^a   MacFadyen, Amy ^a   Matthews, H Damon ^a   Meissner, Katrin J ^a   Saenko, Oleg ^a   Schmittner, Andreas ^a   Yoshimori, Masakazu ^a   Bitz, Cecilia M ^b   Holland, Marika M ^c   Duffy, Phil B ^d   Wang, Huaxiao ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA   (Canada)

^b Applied Physics Laboratory   (United States)

^c NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (United States)

^d LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035568671     PISSN: 07055900     EISSN: 14809214     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07055900.2001.9649686     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. ALLEY, R.B. 1989. Water-pressure coupling of sliding and bed deformation: II. Velocity-depth profiles. J. Glaciol. 35: 119-129.
2. BARD, E.; F. ROSTEK and C. SONZOGNI. 1997. Interhemispheric synchrony of the last deglaciation inferred from alkenone palaeothermometry. Nature, 385: 707-710.
3. BARNOLA, J.M.; D. RAYNAUD, Y.S. KOROTKEVICH and C. LORIUS. 1987. Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO2. Nature, 329: 408-414.
4. BECK, J.W.; J. RÉCY, F. TAYLOR, R.L. EDWARDS and G. CABIOCH. 1997. Abrupt changes in early holocene tropical sea surface temperature derived from coral records. Nature, 385: 705-707.
5. BERGER, A.L. 1978. Long-term variations of daily insolation and Quaternary climate change. J. Atmos. Sci. 35: 2362-2367.
6. BITZ, C.M. and W.H. LIPSCOMB. 1999. An energy-conserving thermodynamic model of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. 104: 15669-15677.
7. BITZ, C.M.; M.M. HOLLAND, A.J. WEAVER and M. EBY. 2001. Simulating the icethickness distribution in a coupled climate model. J. Geophys. Res. 106: 2441-2464.
8. BOLTON, D. 1980. The computation of equivalent potential temperature. Mon. Weather Rev. 108: 1046-1053.
9. BOYLE, E.A. and L.D. KEIGWIN. 1987. North Atlantic thermohaline circulation during the past 20,000 years linked to high-latitude surface temperature. Nature, 330: 35-40.
10. BROCCOLI, A.J. 2000. Tropical cooling at the last glacial maximum: An atmosphere-mixed layer ocean model simulation. J. Clim. 13: 951-976.
11. BROCCOLI, A.J. and S. MANABE. 1987. The influence of continental ice, atmospheric CO2, and land albedo on the climate of the last glacial maximum. Clim. Dyn. 1: 87-99.
12. BRYAN, K. 1984. Accelerating the convergence to equilibrium of ocean-climate models. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 14: 666-673.
13. BRYAN, K. and L. LEWIS. 1979. A water mass model of the world ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 84: 311-337.
14. BUSH, A.B.G. and S.G.H. PHILANDER. 1998. The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in tropical cooling during the last glacial maximum. Science, 279: 1341-1344.
15. CESS, R.D.; M.H. ZANG, W.J. INGRAM, G.L. POTTER, V. ALEKSEEV, H.W. BARKER, E. COHEN-SOLAL, R.A. COLMAN, D.A. DAZLICH, A.D.D. GENIO, M.R. DIX, V. DYMNIKOV, M. ESCH, L.D. FOWLER, J.R. FRASER, V. GALIN, W.L. GATES, J.J. HACK, J.T. KIEHL, H. LETREUT, K.W. LOS, B.J. MCAVANEY, V.P. MELESHKO, J.J. MORCETTE, D.A. RANDALL, E. ROECKNER, J.F. ROYER, M.E. SCHLESINGER, P.V. SPORYSHEV, B. TIMBAL, E.M. VOLODIN, K.E. TAYLOR, W. WANG and R.T. WETHERALD. 1996. Cloud feedback in atmospheric general circulation models: An update. J. Geophys. Res. 101: 12791-12794.
16. CHAPMAN, M.R.; N.J. SHACKLETON, M. ZHAO and G. EGLINTON. 1996. Faunal and alkenone reconstructions of North Atlantic surface hydrography and paleotemperature over the last 28 kyr. Paleoceanogr. 11: 343-357.
17. CHARLES, C.D. and R.G. FAIRBANKS. 1992. Evidence from Southern Ocean sediments for the effect of North Atlantic deep-water flux on climate. Nature, 355: 416-419.
18. CHARLES, C.D.; J. LYNCH-STIEGLITZ, U.S. NINNEMANN and R.G. FAIRBANKS. 1996. Climate connections between the hemispheres revealed by deep sea sediment core/ice core correlations. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 142: 19-27.
19. CLAUSSEN, M.; L.A. MYSAK, A.J. WEAVER, M. CRUCIFIX, T. FICHEFET, M. LOUTRE, S.L. WEBER, J. ALCAMO, V.A. ALEXEEV, A. BERGER, R. CALOV, A. GANOPOLSKI, H. GOOSSE, G. LOHMAN, F. LUNKEIT, I. MOHKOV, V. PETOUKHOV, P. STONE and Z. WANG. 2001. Earth system models of intermediate complexity: Closing the gap in the spectrum of climate system models. Clim. Dyn. In press.
20. CLIMAP PROJECT MEMBERS. 1976. The surface of the ice-age earth. Science, 191: 1131-1137.
21. CLIMAP PROJECT MEMBERS. 1981. Seasonal reconstructions of the earth’s surface at the glacial maximum. Technical report, Geol. Soc. Am. Map Chart Ser. MC-36, pp. 1-18.
22. COX, P.M. 2001. Description of the “TRIFFID” Dynamic Global Vegetation Model. Technical Report Technical Note, HCTN24, Hadley Centre, 16 pp.
23. COX, P.M.; R.A. BETTS, C.D. JONES, S.A. SPALL and I.J. TOTTERDELL. 2000. Acceleration of global warming due to carbon cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature, 408: 184-187.
24. CROSTA, X.; J.J. PICHON and L.H. BURCKLE. 1998a. Application of modern analog technique to marine Antarctic diatoms: Reconstruction of maximum sea ice extent at the last glacial maximum. Paleoceanogr. 13: 286-297.
25. CROSTA, X.; J.J. PICHON and L.H. BURCKLE. 1998b. Reappraisal of Antarctic seasonal sea ice at the last glacial maximum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25: 2703-2706.
26. CROWLEY, T.J. 2000. CLIMAP SSTs re-visited. Clim. Dyn. 16: 241-255.
27. CROWLEY, T.J. and G.R. NORTH. 1991. Paleoclimatology. Number 18 in Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics. Oxford University Press. 339 pp.
28. CROWLEY, T.J. and S. BAUM. 1997. Effect of vegetation on an ice-age climate model simulation. J. Geophys. Res. 102: 16463-16480.
29. CUBASCH, U.; B.D. SANTER, A. HELLBACH, G. HEGERL, H. HOECK, E. MAIERREIMER, U. MIKOLAJEWICZ, A. STÖSSEL and R. VOSS. 1994. Monte Carlo climate change forecasts with a global coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Clim. Dyn. 10: 1-19.
30. CURRY, W.B. and G.P. LOHMANN. 1983. Reduced advection into Atlantic Ocean deep eastern basins during last glacial maximum. Nature, 308: 317-342.
31. CURRY, W.B. and D.W. OPPO. 1997. Synchronous high-frequency oscillations in tropical sea surface temperatures and North Atlantic deep water production during the last glacial cycles. Paleoceanogr. 12: 1-14.
32. DA SILVA, A.M.; C. YOUNG and S. LEVITUS. 1994. Atlas of Surface Marine Data 1994: Vol. 3, Anomalies of Heat and Momentum Fluxes. Technical Report NOAA Atlas NESDIS 8, U. S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA. 413 pp.
33. DANABASOGLU, G.; J.C. MCWILLIAMS and P.R. GENT. 1994. The role of mesoscale tracer transports in the global ocean circulation. Science, 264: 1123-1126.
34. DUFFY, P.B. and K. CALDEIRA. 1997. Sensitivity of simulated salinity in a threedimensional ocean model to upper-ocean transport of salt from sea-ice formation. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27: 498-523.
35. DUFFY, P.B.; M. EBY and A.J. WEAVER. 1999. Effects of sinking of salt rejected during formation of sea ice on results of a global ocean-atmosphere-sea ice climate model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26: 1739-1742.
36. DUFFY, P.B.; M. EBY and A.J. WEAVER. 2001. Climate model simulations of effects of increased atmospheric CO2 and loss of sea ice on ocean tracer uptake. J. Clim. 14: 520-532.
37. FAIRBANKS, R.G. 1989. A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature, 342: 637-642.
38. FANNING, A.G. and A.J. WEAVER. 1996. An atmospheric energy-moisture model: Climatology, interpentadal climate change and coupling to an ocean general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res. 101: 15111-15128.
39. FANNING, A.G. and A.J. WEAVER. 1997a. On the role of flux adjustments in an idealized coupled climate model. Clim. Dyn. 13: 691-701.
40. FANNING, A.G. and A.J. WEAVER. 1997b. Temporal-geographical meltwater influences on the North Atlantic conveyor: Implications for the Younger Dryas. Paleoceanogr. 12: 307-320.
41. FICHEFET, T. and C. TRICOT. 1992. Influence of the starting date of model integration on projections of greenhouse gas induced climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19: 1771-1774.
42. FLATO, G.M. and W.D. HIBLER. 1995. Ridging and strength in modelling the thickness distribution of Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 18611-18626.
43. FLATO, G.M.; G.L. BOER, N.A. MCFARLANE, D. RAMSDEN, M.C. READER and A.J. WEAVER. 2001. The Canadian Climate Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis global coupled model and its climate. Clim. Dyn. 16: 451-467.
44. FOFONOFF, N.P. and R.C. MILLARD. 1983. Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties of seawater. Technical report, UNESCO Tech. Papers in Marine Sci. No. 44, Paris, 53 pp.
45. GANOPOLSKI, A.; S. RAHMSTORF, V. PETOUKHOV and M. CLAUSSEN. 1998. Simulation of modern and glacial climates with a coupled global model of intermediate complexity. Nature, 391: 351-356.
46. GANOPOLSKI, A.; V. PETOUKHOV, S. RAHMSTORF, V. BROVKIN, M. CLAUSSEN, A. ELISEEV and C. KUBATZKI. 2001. CLIMBER-2: A climate system model of intermediate complexity. Part II: Model sensitivity. Clim. Dyn. 17(10): 735-751.
47. GATES, W.L.; A. HENDERSON-SELLERS, G.J. BOER, C.K. FOLLAND, A. KITOH, B.J. MCAVANEY, F. SEMAZZI, N. SMITH, A.J. WEAVER and Q.C. ZENG. 1996. Climate models-evaluation. In: Climate Change 1995-The Science of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, J.T. Houghton, L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenburg, and K. Maskell (Eds), Cambridge University Press Cambridge, England. pp. 229-284.
48. GENT, P.R. and J.C. MCWILLIAMS. 1999. Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 20: 150-155.
49. GIBSON, J.K.; P. KÅLLBERG, S. UPPALA, A. NOMURA, A HERNANDEZ and E. SERRANO. 1997. ERA description. In: ECMWF Re-Analysis Project Report Series, Vol. 1. ECMWF, Reading, UK, 74 pp.
50. GILL, A.E. 1982. Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics, Vol. 30 of Int. Geophys. Ser. Academic Press, New York, NY. 662 pp.
51. GLEN, J.W. 1955. The creep of polycrystalline ice. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lon. A. 228: 519-538.
52. GLEN, J.W. 1958. The flow law of ice. A discussion of the assumptions made in glacier theory, their experimental foundations and consequences. IASH, 47: 171-183.
53. GOLDSTEIN, H. 1950. Classical Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, New York, 672 pp.
54. GORDON, A.L. 1986. Interocean exchange of thermocline water. J. Geophys. Res. 91: 5037-5046.
55. GORDON, A.L. 1997. Which is it: warm or cold route, or maybe both? WOCE Newsletter, 28: 37-38.
56. GORDON, C.; C. COOPER, C.A. SENIOR, H. BANKS, J.M. GREGORY, T.C. JOHNS, J.F.B. MITCHELL and R.A. WOOD. 2000. The simulation of sst, sea ice extents and ocean heat transports in a version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux adjustments. Clim. Dyn. 16: 147-168.
57. GRAVES, C.E.; W.H. LEE and G.R. NORTH. 1993. New parameterizations and sen-sitivities for simple climate models. J. Geophys. Res. 98: 5025-5036.
58. GUILDERSON, T.P.; R.G. FAIRBANKS and J.L. RUBENSTONE. 1994. Tropical temperature variations since 20,000 years ago: Modulating interhemispheric climate change. Science, 263: 663-665.
59. HANSEN, J.; A. LACIS, D. RIND, G. RUSSELL, P. STONE, I. FUNG, R. RUEDY and J. LERNER. 1984. Climate sensitivity: Analysis of feedback mechanisms. In: Climate Processes and Climate Sensitivity, J.E. Hansen and T. Takahashi (Eds) Vol. 29 of Geophysical Monograph, Am. Geophys. Union. pp. 130-163.
60. HASSELMANN, K.; R. SAUSEN, E. MAIER-REIMER and R. VOSS. 1993. On the cold start problem in transient simulations with coupled ocean-atmosphere models. Clim. Dyn. 9: 53-61.
61. HEBBEIN, D.; T. DOKKEN, E. ANDERSON, M. HALD and A. ELVERHOL. 1994. Moisture supply for northern ice-sheet growth during the last glacial maximum. Nature, 370: 357-359.
62. HIBLER, W.D. 1979. A dynamic thermodynamic sea ice model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 9: 815-846.
63. HIBLER, W.D. 1980. Modeling a variable thickness ice cover. Mon. Weather Rev. 108: 1943-1973.
64. HOLLAND, M.M.; C.M. BITZ, M. EBY and A.J. WEAVER. 2001. The role of ice ocean interactions in the variability of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. J. Clim., 14: 656-675.
65. HUGHES, T.M.C. and A.J. WEAVER. 1994. Multiple equilibria of an asymmetric two-basin ocean model. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 24: 619-637.
66. HUNKE, E.C. and J.K. DUKOWICZ. 1997. An elastic-viscous-plastic model for sea ice dynamics. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 27: 1849-1867.
67. HUTTER, K. 1983. Theoretical Glaciology: Material Science of Ice and the Mechanics of Glaciers and Ice Sheets. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 510 pp.
68. HUTTER, K. 1993. Thermo-mechanically coupled ice-sheet response-cold polythermal, temperate. J. Glaciol. 39: 65-86.
69. HYDE, W.T.; T.J. CROWLEY, K.Y. KIM and G.R. NORTH. 1989. Comparison of GCM and energy balance model simulations of seasonal temperature changes over the past 18 000 years. J. Clim. 2: 864-887.
70. IKEHARA, M.; K. KAWAMURA, N. OHKOUCHI, K. KIMOTO, M. MURAYAMA, T. NAKAMURA, T. OBA and A. TAIRA. 1997. Alkenone sea surface temperature in the Southern Ocean for the last two deglaciations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24: 679-682.
71. ISEMER, H.J.; J. WILLEBRAND and L. HASSE. 1989. Fine adjustment of large scale air-sea energy flux parameterizations by direct estimates of ocean heat transport. J. Clim. 2: 1173-1184.
72. KALNAY, E.; M. KANAMITSU, R. KISTLER, W. COLLINS, D. DEAVEN, L. GANDIN, M. IREDELL, S. SAHA, G. WHITE, J. WOOLLEN, Y. ZHU, A. LEETMAA and R. REYNOLDS. 1996. The NCEP/NCAR 40 year reanalysis project. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 77: 437-471.
73. KATTENBERG, A.; F. GIORGI, H. GRASSL, G.A. MEEHL, J.F.B. MITCHELL, R.J. STOUFFER, T. TOKIOKA, A.J. WEAVER and T.M.L. WIGLEY. 1996. Climate modelsprojections of future climate. In: Climate Change 1995, J.T. Houghton, L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenburg and K. Maskell (Eds). Cambridge University Press. pp. 285-357.
74. KEEN, A.B. and J.M. MURPHY. 1997. Influence of natural variability and the cold start problem on the simulated transient response to increasing CO2. Clim. Dyn. 13: 835-845.
75. KUTZBACH, J.E. and P.J. GUETTER. 1986. The influence of changing orbital parameters and surface boundary conditions on climate simulations for the past 18,000 years. J. Atmos. Sci. 43: 1726-1759.
76. LAUTENSCHLAGER, M. and K. HERTERICH. 1990. Atmospheric response to ice age conditions: climatology near the earth’s surface. J. Geophys. Res. 95: 22547-22557.
77. LEA, D.W. and E.A. BOYLE. 1990. Foraminiferal reconstructions of barium distributions in water masses of the glacial ocean. Paleoceanogr. 5: 719-742.
78. LEAN, J.L.; J. BEER and R. BRADLEY. 1995. Reconstruction of solar irradiance since 1610: Implications for climate change. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22: 3195-3198.
79. LEVITUS, S. and T.P. BOYER. 1994. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 4, World Ocean Atlas 1994, Volume 4: Temperature. NOAA, U. S. Dept. Commerce. 117 pp.
80. LEVITUS, S.; R. BURGETT and T.P. BOYER. 1994. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 3, World Ocean Atlas 1994, Volume 3: Salinity. NOAA. U. S. Dept. Commerce. 99 pp.
81. LYLE, M.W.; F.G. PRAHL and M.A. SPARROW. 1992. Upwelling and productivity changes inferred from a temperature record in the central equatorial pacific. Nature, 355: 812-815.
82. MANABE, S. and A.J. BROCCOLI. 1985. The influence of continental ice sheets on the climate of an ice age. J. Geophys. Res. 90: 2167-2190.
83. MANABE, S. and K. BRYAN. 1985. CO2-induced change in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model and its paleoclimatic implications. J. Geophys. Res. 90: 11689-11707.
84. MANABE, S. and R.J. STOUFFER. 1988. Two stable equilibria of a coupled oceanatmosphere model. J. Clim. 1: 841-866.
85. MANABE, S. and R.J. STOUFFER. 1999. Are two modes of thermohaline circulation stable? Tellus, 51A: 400-411.
86. MARSHALL, S.J. 1996. Modelling Laurentide Ice Stream Thermomechanics. Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 256 pp.
87. MARSHALL, S.J. and G.K.C. CLARKE. 1997a. A continuum mixture model of ice stream thermomechanics in the Laurentide ice sheet, 1. theory. J. Geophys. Res. 102: 20599-20614.
88. MARSHALL, S.J. and G.K.C. CLARKE. 1997b. A continuum mixture model of ice stream thermomechanics in the Laurentide ice sheet, 2. application to the Hudson Strait ice stream. J. Geophys. Res. 102: 20599-20614.
89. MCFARLANE, N.A.; G.J. BOER, J.P. BLANCHET and M. LAZARE. 1992. The Canadian Climate Centre second-generation circulation model and its equilibrium climate. J. Clim. 5: 1013-1044.
90. MCPHEE, M.G. 1992. Turbulent heat flux in the upper ocean sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 5365-5379.
91. MITCHELL, J.F.B.; T.C. JOHNS, J.M. GREGORY and S.F.B. TETT. 1995. Climate response to increasing levels of greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. Nature, 376: 501-504.
92. OPPO, D.W. and G. FAIRBANKS. 1987. Variability in the deep and intermediate water circulation of the Atlantic Ocean during the past 25,000 years: Northern Hemisphere modulation of the Southern Ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 86: 1-15.
93. ORESKES, N.; K. SHRODER-FRECHETTE and K. BELITZ. 1994. Verification, validation, and confirmation of numerical models in the earth sciences. Science, 263: 641-646.
94. ORR, J.C.; R. NAJJAR, C.L. SABINE and F. JOOS. 1999. Abiotic-HOWTO. Internal OCMIP Report, LSCE/CEA Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France. 29 pp.
95. PACANOWSKI, R. 1995. MOM 2 Documentation User’s Guide and Reference Manual, GFDL Ocean Group Technical Report. NOAA, GFDL. Princeton. 232 pp.
96. PATERSON, W.S.B. 1994. The Physics of Glaciers. third edition. Elsevier, New York. 480 pp.
97. PEIXOTO, J.P. and A.H. OORT. 1992. Physics of Climate. American Institute of Physics, New York. 520 pp.
98. PELTIER, W.R. 1994. Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265: 195-201.
99. PELTIER, W.R. and S. MARSHALL. 1995. Coupled energy-balance/ice sheet model simulations of the glacial cycle: A possible connection between terminations and terrigenous dust. J. Geophys. Res. 100: 14269-14289.
100. PETIT, J.R.; M. BRIAT and A. ROYER. 1981. Ice age aerosol content from east Antarctica ice core samples and past wind strength. Nature, 293: 391-394.
101. PETOUKHOV, V.; A. GANOPOLSKI, V. BROVKIN, M. CLAUSSEN, A. ELISEEV, C. KUBATZKI and S. RAHMSTORF. 2000. CLIMBER-2: A climate system model of intermediate complexity. Part I: Model description and performance for present climate. Clim. Dyn. 16: 1-17.
102. POUSSART, P.F.; A.J. WEAVER and C.R. BARNES. 1999. Late Ordovician glaciation under high atmospheric CO2: A coupled model analysis. Paleoceanogr. 14: 542-558.
103. RAHMSTORF, S. and A. GANOPOLSKI. 1999. Long-term warming scenarios computed with an efficient coupled climate model. Clim. Change, 43: 353-367.
104. RAMANATHAN, V.; L. CALLIS, R. CESS, J. HANSEN, I. ISAKSEN, W. KUHN, A. LACIS, F. LUTHER, J. MAHLMAN, P. RECK and M. SCHLESINGER. 1987. Climate-chemical interactions and effects of changing atmospheric trace gases. Rev. Geophys. 25: 1441-1482.
105. RAPER, S.C.B.; T.M.L. WIGLEY and R.A. WARRICK. 1996. Global sea-level rise: past and future. In: Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Subsidence, J.D. Milliman and B.U. Haq (Eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 11-46.
106. RINTOUL, S.R., 1991. South Atlantic interbasin exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 96: 2675-2692.
107. ROBITAILLE, D.Y. and A.J. WEAVER. 1995. Validation of sub-grid-scale mixing schemes using CFCs in a global ocean model. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22: 2917-2920.
108. ROSTEK, F.; G. RUHLAND, F. BASSINOT, P.J. MUELLER, L.D. LABEYRIE, Y. LANCELOT and E. BARD. 1993. Reconstructing sea surface temperature and salinity using d1 8o and alkenone records. Nature, 364: 319-321.
109. ROTHROCK, D.A. 1975. The energetics of the plastic deformation of pack ice by ridging. J. Geophys. Res. 80: 4514-4519.
110. ROTHROCK, D.A. 1986. Ice thickness distribution-measurement and theory. In: The Geophysics of Sea Ice, N. Untersteiner (Ed.) Vol 146, NATO ASI Series B, Physics, Plenum, New York, London. pp. 551-575.
111. RUTBERG, R.L.; S.R. HEMMING and S.L. GOLDSTEIN. 2000. Reduced North Atlantic deep water flux to the glacial Southern Ocean inferred from neodymium isotopes ratios. Nature, 405: 935-938.
112. SAENKO, O.; G.M. FLATO and A.J. WEAVER. 2001. Improved representation of sea-ice processes in climate models. ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN. In press.
113. SCHILLER, A.; U. MIKOLAJEWICZ and R. VOSS. 1997. The stability of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere general model. Clim. Dyn. 13: 325-347.
114. SCHNEIDER, R.R.; P.J. MULLER and G. RUHLAND. 1995. Late Quaternary surface circulation in the east equatorial South Atlantic: Evidence from alkenone sea surface temperatures. Paleocenogr. 10: 197-219.
115. SCHWARZACHER, W. 1959. Pack ice studies in the Arctic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 64: 2357-2367.
116. SEMTNER, A.J. 1976. A model for the thermodynamic growth of sea ice in numerical investigations of climate. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 6: 379-389.
117. SHACKLEY, S.; P. YOUNG, S. PARKINSON and B. WYNNE. 1998. Uncertainty, complexity and concepts of good science in climate change modelling. Clim. Change, 38: 159-205.
118. SHER, A. 1995. Is there any real evidence for a huge ice sheet in East Siberia? Quat. Int. 28: 39-40.
119. SIKES, E.L. and L. KEIGWIN. 1994. Equatorial Atlantic sea surface temperature for the last 30 kyr: A comparison of Uk' 37 d18 and foraminiferal assemblage temperature estimates. Paleoceanogr. 9: 31-45.
120. STOCKER, T.F.; D.G. WRIGHT and L.A. MYSAK. 1992. A zonally averaged, coupled ocean-atmosphere model for paleoclimate studies. J. Clim. 5: 773-797.
121. STOCKER, T.F. and A. SCHMITTNER. 1997. Influence of CO2 emission rates on the stability of the thermohaline circulation. Nature, 388: 862-865.
122. STUTE, M.; M. FORSTER, H. FRISCHKORN, A. SEREJO, J.F. CLARK, P. SCHLOSSER, W.S. BROECKER and G. BONANI. 1995. Cooling of tropical Brazil (5°C) during the last glacial maximum. Science, 269: 379-383.
123. SUAREZ, M.J. and L.L. TAKACS. 1986. Global 5'×5' depth elevation. Technical report, National Geophysical Data Centre, NOAA, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Code E/GC3, Boulder CO 80303.
124. TARASOV, L. and W.R. PELTIER. 1997. A high-resolution model of the 100 ka ice-age cycle. Ann Galciol. 25: 58-65.
125. THOMPSON, L.G. E. MOSLEY-THOMPSON, M.E. DAVIS, P.N. LIN, K.A. HENDERSON, J. COLE-DAI, J.F. BOLZAN and K.B. LIU. 1995. Late glacial stage and holocene tropical ice core records from Huascarán, Peru. Science, 269: 46-50.
126. THOMPSON, S.L. and S.G. WARREN. 1982. Parameterization of outgoing infrared radiation derived from detailed radiative calculations. J. Atmos. Sci. 39: 2667-2680.
127. THORNDIKE, A.S.; D.A. ROTHROCK, G.A. MAYKUT and R. COLONY. 1975. The thickness distribution of sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. 80: 4501-4513.
128. UNESCO. 1981. Tenth report of the joint panel on oceanographic tables and standards. Technical report, UNESCO Tech. Papers in Marine Sci. No. 36, Paris, 24 pp.
129. VAN DE WAL, R.S.W. 1999. The importance of thermodynamics for modeling the volume of the Greenland ice sheet. J. Geophys. Res. 104: 3887-3898.
130. WANNINKHOF, R. 1992. Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 97: 7373-7382.
131. WEAVER, A.J. and T.M.C. HUGHES. 1996. On the incompatibility of ocean and atmosphere models and the need for flux adjustments. Clim. Dyn. 12: 141-170.
132. WEAVER, A.J.; M. EBY, A.F. FANNING and E.C. WIEBE. 1998. Simulated influence of carbon dioxide, orbital forcing and ice sheets on the climate of the Last Glacial Maximum. Nature, 394: 847-853.
133. WEAVER, A.J. and E.C. WIEBE.1999. On the sensitivity of projected oceanic thermal expansions to the parameterisation of sub-grid scale ocean mixing. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26: 3461-3464.
134. WEAVER, A.J.; P.B. DUFFY, M. EDY and E.C. WIEBE. 2000. Evaluation of ocean and climate models using present-day observations and forcing. ATMOSPHEREOCEAN, 38: 271-301.
135. WEBB, R.S.; D.H. RIND and D. SIGMAN. 1997. Influence of ocean heat transport on the climate of the last glacial maximum. Nature, 385: 695-699.
136. WIEBE, E.C. and A.J. WEAVER. 1999. On the sensitivity of global warming experiments to the parameterisation of sub-grid-scale ocean mixing. Clim. Dyn. 15: 875-893.
137. WIGLEY, T.M.L. 1998. The Kyoto Protocol: CO2, CH4, and climate implications. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25: 2285-2288.
138. WIGLEY, T.M.L. and S.C.B. RAPER. 1987. Thermal expansion of sea water associated with global warming. Nature, 330: 127-131.
139. WIGLEY, T.M.L. and S.C.B. RAPER. 1992. Implications for climate and sea level of revised IPCC emissions scenarios. Nature, 357: 293-300.
140. YOSHIMORI, M.; A.J. WEAVER, S.J. MARSHALL and G.K.C. CLARKE. 2001. Glacial termination: Sensitivity to orbital and CO2 forcing in a coupled climate system model. Clim. Dyn. 17: 571-588.